《中國(guó)人的性格》是美國(guó)傳教士阿瑟·史密斯（明恩溥）基于1872年赴華傳教期間的社會(huì)觀察撰寫的著作，首版英文名《Chinese Characteristics》于19世紀(jì)末問(wèn)世，。作者在華生活逾五十年，書(shū)中融合人類學(xué)視角與傳教士立場(chǎng)，記錄了晚清民眾的性格特征與文化形態(tài)。

全書(shū)以27個(gè)主題章節(jié)剖析中國(guó)人行為模式，包含“保全面子”“省吃儉用”等生活哲學(xué)，以及“漠視精確”“因循守舊”等社會(huì)現(xiàn)象。通過(guò)對(duì)比西方工業(yè)文明，著重探討東方特有的生存韌性，如環(huán)境適應(yīng)力與疼痛耐受性。書(shū)中案例多源自山東鄉(xiāng)村生活經(jīng)歷，涉及衣食住行、孝悌觀念等主題，部分結(jié)論因宗教立場(chǎng)存在視角爭(zhēng)議。該著作開(kāi)創(chuàng)西方研究中國(guó)國(guó)民性先河，被譯成多國(guó)文字，成為近代中西文化互鑒的重要文本。

第二十六章 多元信仰（下）

在中國(guó)，可以看到許多朝圣者每走一步、磕一個(gè)頭。他們要在這種沉悶而單調(diào)的朝圣歷程中花掉很長(zhǎng)時(shí)間。如果問(wèn)他們?yōu)槭裁匆@樣，他們會(huì)說(shuō)，有許多人的信仰是假的，信仰者有必要以這種苦行的方式表達(dá)他們的虔誠(chéng)。無(wú)論怎樣評(píng)價(jià)這種例外，我們?nèi)詴?huì)毫不猶豫地?cái)嘌?，他們彼此間缺乏信義，在信仰方面表現(xiàn)得更突出，對(duì)北京附近一座廟里和尚的描繪，簡(jiǎn)直是描繪陰險(xiǎn)狡詐方面的杰作。人，長(zhǎng)了一張什么樣的臉，就過(guò)一種什么樣的生活。

與其他國(guó)家的非基督教徒一樣，中國(guó)人把自己的神想像得和自己一樣，因?yàn)橛胁簧偕耢`是他們的同胞。筆者曾看到過(guò)一張以菩薩名義貼出的告示，它曉諭世人，人類逐漸變得邪惡的消息已上達(dá)天庭，玉帝獲悉，大為震怒，大聲怒斥他的神臣，因?yàn)樗麄儧](méi)有強(qiáng)迫人類從善。中國(guó)人認(rèn)為，人們周圍到處都是神靈精怪，他們一樣可以賄賂、奉承、容易欺騙。中國(guó)人討價(jià)還價(jià)時(shí)，很想占對(duì)方的便宜，對(duì)他所祈禱的神，如果可能，他同樣想占便宜，他可以通過(guò)捐錢修廟換取好運(yùn)，但假如他捐二百五十個(gè)銅錢，卻可能在功德簿上記一千！神靈只能從簿子上知道他捐了多少。修廟時(shí)，每尊神像都會(huì)用紅紙遮住眼睛，這樣，他就不能看到周圍混亂的場(chǎng)面和不敬的舉止了，如果廟位于村外，常常會(huì)成為盜賊分贓的窩點(diǎn)，因此，人們就把廟門封上，讓神靈獨(dú)自待在里面，去和宇宙盡情地交流吧。

年底，灶君要回到天上，匯報(bào)他所在家庭的行為，但他的嘴巴早已被抹上粘糖，不能說(shuō)出不好的事情了。這個(gè)風(fēng)俗，人們都很熟悉，它是中國(guó)人智勝天界神仙的典型例子。一個(gè)男孩子有時(shí)會(huì)取女孩的名字，這可以使愚蠢的妖怪認(rèn)為他真是女孩，從而放過(guò)他。巴伯先生談到，在四川，女?huà)氡荒缢篮螅藗兛偸谴鬅堝X，供她的鬼魂使用，以此來(lái)安撫她們。送子菩薩的廟和其他的廟不同，進(jìn)去的一般都是婦女。很多廟會(huì)為她們提供泥做的小男孩，它們有時(shí)由菩薩抱著，有時(shí)像貨物一樣擺在架子上。婦女燒香拜佛時(shí)，會(huì)把泥人的小雞雞掰下來(lái)吃掉，以確保生男孩，這已成為一種習(xí)慣做法。廟里一般有許多這樣的小泥人，是特地為去廟里進(jìn)香的婦女準(zhǔn)備的。不過(guò)，只能悄悄地偷走，不能公開(kāi)拿走。假如果真生了男孩，這位婦女就要在上次偷走泥人的地方，再放上兩個(gè)，以示感謝，中國(guó)的水手認(rèn)為，中國(guó)海上可怕的風(fēng)暴是惡毒的妖怪制造的，它們躺在水底，靜靜地等待著，一旦有船的動(dòng)靜，馬上興風(fēng)作浪。風(fēng)暴十分猛烈時(shí)，據(jù)說(shuō)水手會(huì)做一個(gè)和他們船一模一樣的紙船。等到最危急的關(guān)頭，放入海中，這樣可以欺騙狂怒的水怪，使真船脫身。

霍亂之類的瘟疫發(fā)生時(shí)，中國(guó)常在六、七月份慶祝新年，帝國(guó)的大部分地區(qū)都盛行這一風(fēng)俗。人們認(rèn)為，這樣做可以欺騙瘟神，它會(huì)很驚訝地發(fā)現(xiàn)，原來(lái)自己算錯(cuò)了年歷，然后就離開(kāi)了。這也可以使人們很容易理解，為什么“秋二月”實(shí)際指的是“永遠(yuǎn)”。人們還有一種欺騙神的做法，就是爬到供桌底下，將頭從一個(gè)專門的圓孔中伸出來(lái)。神會(huì)以為人真的把頭獻(xiàn)給了自己，便賜以相應(yīng)的好運(yùn)。而那人將頭一縮，就回家享受將來(lái)的好運(yùn)去了。

有一次，我們偶然發(fā)現(xiàn)，一個(gè)村莊想把神像挪走，將廟改成學(xué)校。村民們本指望能從佛像的肚子里掏出些“銀子”，補(bǔ)充開(kāi)支?？蛇@些頭腦簡(jiǎn)單的鄉(xiāng)下人根本不了解佛和塑佛像的人，結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)那寶貴的心臟只是一團(tuán)錫塊。不過(guò)，確有些僧人曾把財(cái)寶藏在佛像里，使廟里遭了搶劫，佛像要么被搬走，要么被當(dāng)場(chǎng)打碎。但是這幫粗魯?shù)募一锶詴?huì)相信神。據(jù)說(shuō)，有個(gè)縣官在審理一樁與僧人有關(guān)的案子時(shí)，牽涉到廟里的佛祖，縣官便將它召到堂上，令其跪下，可它不跪，憤怒的縣官命人把它重打五百大板，結(jié)果打成了一堆泥土，并以缺席判其敗訴。

每逢土地干枯，不能播種時(shí)，人們便向雨神求雨，希望它大施神威，普降甘霖。假如求了很長(zhǎng)時(shí)間，仍無(wú)結(jié)果，村民經(jīng)常會(huì)將神像抬到最熱的地方，讓它親自去看看，而不是只守在廟里聽(tīng)人說(shuō)。人們也經(jīng)常不掩飾對(duì)神的不滿，有一句流行的俗語(yǔ)為證：“三，四月不修屋，六、七月罵澇神?！?/p>

我們聽(tīng)說(shuō)中國(guó)的一個(gè)大城市，遭到了一種嚴(yán)重的傳染病的侵襲。人們判斷，這是當(dāng)?shù)氐囊粋€(gè)神在作怪。于是，他們就聯(lián)合起來(lái)，儼然對(duì)付一個(gè)現(xiàn)實(shí)的惡霸，把神像打成一堆碎土。我們沒(méi)有證據(jù)保證這一描述的真實(shí)性，只是聽(tīng)說(shuō)而已，不過(guò)，這己足夠了，因?yàn)檎麄€(gè)過(guò)程很符合中國(guó)人的神靈觀念。

我們列舉的這些實(shí)例，很容易使不了解中國(guó)人性格的人認(rèn)為，中國(guó)完全不可能有宗教。確實(shí)有人這樣直截了當(dāng)?shù)財(cái)嘌浴Ｃ范潘瓜壬谒摹吨袊?guó)人及其信仰》一書(shū)中，批判了胡克先生的概括，認(rèn)為那是對(duì)“人類高尚生活的毫無(wú)根據(jù)的誣蔑”。他坦然承認(rèn)，中國(guó)人既不關(guān)心純粹的神學(xué)爭(zhēng)論，也不關(guān)心把爭(zhēng)論結(jié)果當(dāng)成信條的民族的行為。但他斷然否認(rèn)中國(guó)“缺乏對(duì)不朽的渴望，缺乏對(duì)美好、偉大事物的由衷贊嘆，缺乏對(duì)偉大、善良的人物的持久、毫不動(dòng)搖的熱愛(ài)，缺乏向往神圣、高尚事物的靈魂”。托馬斯·韋德爵士曾對(duì)中國(guó)和中國(guó)人有過(guò)長(zhǎng)期了解，對(duì)于“中國(guó)有無(wú)宗教”這一普通的問(wèn)題，他應(yīng)有資格作出權(quán)威性的回答。最近，他發(fā)表了如下觀點(diǎn)：“如果宗教是超越于道德之外的東西，那么，我拒絕承認(rèn)中國(guó)人有宗教。他們確實(shí)有祭拜活動(dòng)，或更確切地說(shuō)，是一種混合的祭拜活動(dòng)，但沒(méi)有信仰：他們隨時(shí)都可能嘲笑本民族那些形形色色的偶像崇拜，但他們絕不敢漠然置之?！?/p>

我們覺(jué)得沒(méi)有必要探討這個(gè)有趣而又不容易回答的問(wèn)題，詳細(xì)討論并不困難，可是，不能保證會(huì)有結(jié)果。我們有比討論更有效的、更現(xiàn)實(shí)的途徑來(lái)解決這個(gè)問(wèn)題。道教和佛教對(duì)中國(guó)人影響很大，然而中國(guó)人既不是道士，也不是和尚。他們是孔夫子的信徒，無(wú)論給他們的信仰增加點(diǎn)什么，或減少點(diǎn)什么，他們?nèi)圆粫?huì)改變。我們應(yīng)該努力探尋儒教到底為什么不能成為中國(guó)人必需的宗教。為此，我們打算引用一個(gè)著名的中國(guó)問(wèn)題專家的話，他的研究是不能忽略的。

恩斯特·費(fèi)伯博士《孔子思想體系類編》一書(shū)的最后，有一節(jié)名為“儒教的不足與失誤”，它指出，儒教中有關(guān)人與人之間關(guān)系的精彩論述，在基督教的《啟示錄》中也得到回應(yīng)。下面的二十四條即是引自其中，我們偶爾加上了幾句評(píng)論。

1. “儒教自認(rèn)與現(xiàn)存的神沒(méi)有關(guān)系?！?/p>

2. “人的靈魂與肉體之間沒(méi)有區(qū)別，無(wú)論從生理的角度，還是從生物學(xué)的角度，都沒(méi)有對(duì)人進(jìn)行明確的界定。”

在人的靈魂方面缺少明確的說(shuō)法，這很令學(xué)習(xí)儒家學(xué)說(shuō)的外國(guó)學(xué)生迷惑不解。對(duì)于廣大的普通百姓來(lái)說(shuō)，這種教誨的最終結(jié)果是使他們除了在肉體的生命力方面之外，根本不了解什么是人的靈魂。人死之后，傳統(tǒng)的說(shuō)法是，他的“靈魂”升天，“肉體”化為泥土。但時(shí)常還出現(xiàn)一種更簡(jiǎn)單的理論，認(rèn)為“靈魂”或生命的氣息消融在空氣中，肉體化為塵埃，這一觀念與真正的儒教的唯物主義不可知論完全一致。問(wèn)中國(guó)人，他有三個(gè)靈魂，一個(gè)靈魂，還是沒(méi)有靈魂？幾乎難以引起他的興趣。對(duì)他來(lái)說(shuō)，這種問(wèn)題就像問(wèn)他，人體的哪塊肌肉帶動(dòng)了咀嚼一樣。只要咀嚼舒服，他才不管是哪塊肌肉呢。同樣，只要他有好胃口，還可以養(yǎng)家糊口，他也不去管什么“靈魂”，除非它與米價(jià)有關(guān)。

3. “沒(méi)有解釋為什么有的人天生就像一個(gè)圣徒，其他人卻是普通人。”

4.“每個(gè)人都能成為圣人，卻不能解釋每個(gè)人都沒(méi)有成為圣人的事實(shí)。”

5. “儒教對(duì)罪惡的態(tài)度堅(jiān)決而認(rèn)真，但除了道德上的懲戒外，沒(méi)提任何懲罰措施。”

6. “對(duì)罪孽和邪惡缺少深刻的認(rèn)識(shí)?！?/p>

7. “因此，儒教發(fā)現(xiàn)無(wú)法解釋死亡?！?/p>

8.“儒教中不存在一個(gè)中介，使人的原初本性與自身的理想重歸和諧。”

9. “祈禱及其道德力量與儒教無(wú)緣。”

10. “盡管一再?gòu)?qiáng)調(diào)信任，現(xiàn)實(shí)中卻很少鼓勵(lì)作為信任前提的誠(chéng)實(shí)，而且恰恰相反?！?/p>

11.“認(rèn)為一夫多妻制天經(jīng)地義?！?/p>

12. “贊同多神論?！?/p>

13. “相信算命、看日子，預(yù)兆、做夢(mèng)和其他的幻像（如鳳凰等）?！?/p>

14. “倫理道德和其他的儀式攪在一起，成為一種十足的專制形式?！?/p>

15. “孔子對(duì)待古代制度的態(tài)度反復(fù)無(wú)常?！?/p>

16. “斷言某些美妙的音樂(lè)會(huì)對(duì)道德產(chǎn)生荒謬的影響?！?/p>

17. “夸大楷模的力量?？鬃颖救司褪亲詈玫睦C?！?/p>

如果像儒教所宣稱的，君為器，民為水，器圓則水圓，器方則水方——似乎就難以解釋為什么中國(guó)的偉人沒(méi)有對(duì)他的研究者產(chǎn)生強(qiáng)有力的影響。如果楷模確實(shí)像儒教所說(shuō)，有那么大的影響力，為什么現(xiàn)實(shí)中恰恰相反，看到的都是蒼白無(wú)力的現(xiàn)象？對(duì)“圣人”的神化（第20條將提到）正反映了第8條所言的中介的缺失。無(wú)論“圣人”多賢明，他也只能提些好的建議。假如人們對(duì)他的建議置若罔聞，他也無(wú)可奈何，最多以后不提而已。

我們覺(jué)得，孔子的一句話非常富有啟發(fā)性。他說(shuō)：“不憤不啟，不悱不發(fā)，舉一隅而不以三隅反，則不復(fù)也?！边@話是針對(duì)圣賢們說(shuō)的，很精彩，可決不是預(yù)防針，只能算一劑補(bǔ)藥。眼睜睜地看著旅行者受盜賊搶劫，卻大談加入互助旅行團(tuán)的好處，說(shuō)他之所以頭破血流，就是因?yàn)闆](méi)有加入該團(tuán)。而受傷者對(duì)此全都知曉，可他現(xiàn)在大量失血，早已昏暈過(guò)去。他最需要的不是反思過(guò)去違背了常規(guī)，而是油、酒和可以供他盡量恢復(fù)的避難所，而且首先要有一個(gè)聰明、樂(lè)于助人的朋友。對(duì)于肉體有殘疾的人，儒教或許可以做點(diǎn)什么，可如果是道德或精神方面的，它也無(wú)能為力。

18. “儒教教義中，社會(huì)生活由暴政控制；女人是奴隸；孩子沒(méi)權(quán)力，只能絕對(duì)服從長(zhǎng)輩?！?/p>

19. “絕對(duì)孝順父母，把他們奉若神靈?！?/p>

20. “孔子思想體系的最終結(jié)果是崇拜天才，例如人的神化。”

21. “除了沒(méi)有倫理價(jià)值的祖先崇拜，不存在關(guān)于不朽的明確觀念。”

22. “現(xiàn)世現(xiàn)報(bào)，無(wú)形中鼓勵(lì)了利己主義，不是貪婪，就是野心勃勃?！?/p>

23.“中國(guó)歷史表明，儒教不能使人們獲得新生，努力追求一種更高尚更神圣的生活，現(xiàn)實(shí)生活中，儒教己與道教、佛教相融合。”

24. “整個(gè)儒教對(duì)死者、生者都不能給予安慰。”

對(duì)于中國(guó)各種不同形式的信仰的融合，我們已經(jīng)作了論述。中國(guó)人自己也早已認(rèn)識(shí)到，無(wú)論儒教還是其他宗教，都不能“使他們獲得新生，努力追求一種更高尚更神圣的生活”。有一則傳說(shuō)鮮明地表現(xiàn)了這一點(diǎn)，傳說(shuō)的作者不詳。

據(jù)說(shuō)有一天，孔子、老子、如來(lái)佛三位圣人在永恒的神界相遇了，一致哀嘆世風(fēng)日下，人心不古，他們的教義在天朝上邦無(wú)人聽(tīng)取。經(jīng)過(guò)一陣討論，共同認(rèn)為，他們的教義本身雖然精妙絕倫，令人贊嘆，但沒(méi)有一個(gè)永恒的楷模引導(dǎo)人性朝這個(gè)方向發(fā)展。于是，一致決定下凡人間，物色一位合適的人選。說(shuō)完，他們就分頭到人間去了?？鬃邮紫扔龅搅艘晃焕先耍先丝瓷先チ钊嗣C然起敬。見(jiàn)到孔子來(lái)了，老人卻端坐不動(dòng)，只是請(qǐng)孔子坐下，和孔子談起古圣人的訓(xùn)誡和今天人們對(duì)它的忽視。交談中，老人表現(xiàn)出對(duì)古代圣言了如指掌，其淵博的學(xué)識(shí)和敏銳的判斷力令孔子大為驚嘆。談了一陣后，孔子告辭，老人仍是端坐不動(dòng)，并不起身相送。看到老子和如來(lái)佛一無(wú)所獲，孔子就講述了自己的奇遇，并建議他們也輪流去拜訪那位端坐的哲人，看他是否像熟悉孔子思想一樣，熟悉他們的思想。老子先去，令他興奮的是，老人對(duì)道教教義也十分熟悉，仿佛他就是道教的創(chuàng)始人，其口才和熱情也堪為楷模。同樣，如來(lái)佛也獲得了令人驚喜的成功，不過(guò)，令老子和如來(lái)佛驚奇的是，老人對(duì)他們也非常尊敬，但也同樣都沒(méi)起身相送。

三位圣人又相聚了，他們一致認(rèn)為，這位舉止罕見(jiàn)的老人正是他們的理想中人，不僅精通“三大宗教”教義，而且還能論證“事實(shí)上三教歸一”。于是，他們一起又找到老人，向他解釋了初次拜訪的目的，希望老人能重振三教，將它們付諸實(shí)踐。老人靜靜地坐著，聽(tīng)他們講完，然后答道：“尊敬的諸位圣人，你們的善行如日月齊光，你們的計(jì)劃重比泰山，令人贊嘆。可不幸的是，你們選錯(cuò)了完成這一偉大使命的人。誠(chéng)然，我曾拜讀過(guò)諸位的大作，對(duì)它們的崇高與一致性也略知一二，可你們也許沒(méi)注意到，我的上身是人體，下身卻是石頭。我擅長(zhǎng)從各個(gè)方面論述人類的責(zé)任，卻由于我自身的不幸，永遠(yuǎn)不能將它們付諸實(shí)踐?！比皇ト寺?tīng)了，長(zhǎng)嘆一聲，就從地面上消失了。從此以后，再也不企圖尋找可以傳播三大宗教的凡人了。

我們常常將目前中國(guó)與一世紀(jì)的羅馬相比，事實(shí)上，目前中國(guó)的道德?tīng)顩r要遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)高于羅馬帝國(guó)，可二者有一共同之處，即它們的宗教信仰都瀕臨崩潰的邊緣。我們也可以像吉本評(píng)價(jià)羅馬那樣，來(lái)評(píng)價(jià)中國(guó)：對(duì)普通百姓來(lái)說(shuō)，所有的宗教都一樣真實(shí)；對(duì)哲學(xué)家來(lái)說(shuō)，所有的宗教都一樣虛偽；對(duì)政客來(lái)說(shuō)，所有的宗教都一樣有用。中國(guó)皇帝，也和羅馬皇帝一樣，“既是高級(jí)教士，又是無(wú)神論者，和至高無(wú)上的神?！痹斐芍腥A帝國(guó)這一現(xiàn)狀的就是那融合了多神論與泛神論的儒教。

對(duì)無(wú)神論是否正確的問(wèn)題漠然置之，要比純粹的無(wú)神論更可怕。中國(guó)存在多神論與無(wú)神論兩種迥然不同的信仰，可很多受過(guò)教育的中國(guó)人卻感到二者沒(méi)什么矛盾之處。最令人悲哀的是，中國(guó)人從本性上對(duì)最深?yuàn)W的宗教真理是絕對(duì)冷漠的，比如，他們接受沒(méi)有靈魂的肉體，接受沒(méi)有心靈的靈魂，接受無(wú)條件的和諧，接受沒(méi)有上帝的宇宙。

英文原版：

XXVI. POLYTHEISM，PANTHEISM，ATHEISM

There are many Chinese worshippers who are to be seen making a prostration at every step,sometimes occupying very long periods of time in going on tedious and difficult pilgrim- ages.'When asked what is their motive for submitting to these austerities,they will tell us that as there is so much false worship of the gods,it is necessary for worshippers to demon- strate by these laborious means that their hearts are sincere. Whatever may be said in regard to such exceptional instances, we have no hesitation in affirming that all that has been al- ready said of the absence of sincerity among the Chinese,in their relations to one another,applies with even greater force to much of their worship.The photograph of a group of priests belonging to a temple near Peking is a perfect masterpiece in the representation of serpentine cunning. Men who have such faces live lives to correspond with their faces.

It is as true of the Chinese as it has been of other nations in heathenism,that they have conceived of their gods as alto- gether such as they are themselves,and not without reason, for many of the gods are the countrymen of those who wor- ship them.The writer once saw a proclamation posted in the name of the goddess of mercy,informing the world that repre- sentations had been made at the court of heaven to the effect that mankind were waxing very vicious. The"Pearly Em- peror”of the divinities,upon hearing this,was very angry,and in a loud tone reviled all the subordinate gods because they had failed to reform mankind by exhortation!Human beings are supposed to be surrounded by a cloud of spirits,powerful for evil,but subject to bribes,flattery,cajolery,and liable to be cheated.A Chinese is anxious to take advantage of the man with whom he makes a bargain,and he is not less anx- ious to take advantage—if he can—of the god with whom he makes a bargain—in other words,the god to whom he prays. Perhaps he purchases felicity by subscribing towards the re- pair of a temple,but he not improbably has his subscription of two hundred and fifty cash registered as a thousand.The god will take the account as it stands.While the temple is in process of repair a piece of red paper is perhaps pasted over the eyes of each god,that he may not see the confusion by which he is surrounded and which is not considered respectful. If the temple is situated at the outskirts of a village,and is in too frequent use by thieves as a place in which to divide their booty,the door may be almost or even altogether bricked up, and the god left to communicate with the universe as best he can.

The familiar case of the kitchen-god,who ascends to heaven at the end of the year to make his report of the behaviour of the family,but whose lips are first smeared with glutinous candy to prevent his reporting the bad deeds which he has seen,is a typical instance of a Chinese outwitting his celestial superiors.In the same way a boy is sometimes called by a girl's name to make the unintelligent evil spirits think that he is a girl,in order to secure his lease of life.Mr.Baber speaks of the murder of female infants in Szechuan,whose spirits are subsequently appeased by mock money,which is burned,that it may be conveyed to them for their expenses! The temples to the goddess who bestows children,unlike most other tem- ples,are often frequented by women.Some of these temples are provided with many little clay images of male children, some in the arms of their patron goddess,and others disposed like goods on a shelf.It is the practice of Chinese women, on visiting these temples,to break off the parts which distinguish the sex of the child and eat them,so as to insure the birth of a son. In case there are large numbers of little im- ages,as just mentioned,it is with a view to the accommoda- tion of the women who frequent the temple,each of whom will take an image,but it must be stolen and not openly carried off.In case the desired child is born,the woman is expected to show her gratitude by returning two other images in the place of that which she stole! Chinese sailors suppose that the dreaded typhoons of the China seas are caused by malig- nant spirits,which lie in wait to catch the junks as they navi- gate the dangerous waters.When the storm reaches a pitch of extreme violence,it is said that it is the habit of the mari- ners to have a paper junk made of the exact pattern of their own,and complete in all its details.This paper funk is then cast into the sea at the point of maximum disturbance,in order that the angry water-spirits may be deceived into think- ing that this is the vessel of which they are in quest,and thus allow the real one to escape!

The custom prevails in many parts of China,upon occasion of the spread of some fatal epidemic like cholera,at the be- ginning of the sixth or seventh moon to hold a New-Year's celebration.This is with a view to deceiving the god of the pestilence,who will be surprised to find that he is wrong in his calculations as to the time of year,and will depart,allow- ing the plague to cease.This practice is so well understood that the phrase“autumnal second month”is understood to be a periphrasis for“never.”Another method of hoodwink- ing a divinity is for a man to creep under a table upon which are placed offerings,and to put his head through a round hole made for that purpose.The god will think that this is a genuine case of offering a man's head in sacrifice,and will act accordingly.The man will withdraw his head,and enjoy his well-earned felicity.

In one case of which we happened to be cognisant,where a village decided to remove the gods from a temple and use it for a schoolhouse,they had hoped to pay a considerable pro- portion of the expenses of the alterations by the“silver”to be extracted from the hearts of the late gods.But the simple- minded rustics were not familiar with the ways of Chinese gods and of those who make them,who are like unto them; for when they came to search for the precious hearts they were not found right,but consisted simply of lumps of pew- ter! Cases no doubt occur in which the priests do conceal treasures in the images of their gods,and they are matched by corresponding cases in which the temples are robbed,and the gods either carried off bodily or pulverised on the spot. Violent treatment of Chinese divinities on the part of those who might be expected to worship them,is by no means un- known. We have heard of an instance in which a District Magistrate tried a case which involved a priest,and by im- plication the Buddha which was the occupant of the temple. This god was summoned to appear before the magistrate and told to kneel,which he failed to do,whereupon the magistrate ordered him to be beaten five hundred blows,by which time the god was reduced to a heap of dust,and judgment was pronounced against him by default.

Nearly every year petitions are incessantly put up to the rain-god to exert his powers on the parched earth,which can- not be planted until there is a rainfall.After prayers have been long continued with no result,it is common for the villagers to administer a little wholesome correction by drag- ging the image of the god of war out of his temple and setting him down in the hottest place to be found,that he may know what the condition of the atmosphere really is at first hand, and not by hearsay only.The habit of exhibiting undisguised dissatisfaction with the behaviour of the gods is referred to in the current saying,"If you do not mend the roof of your house in the third or fourth moon,you will be reviling the god of floods in the fifth moon or the sixth.”

We have heard of an instance in which the people of a large city in China,having been visited by an epidemic of great severity,decided that this was owing to the malevolent influence of a particular divinity of the district. Banding themselves together precisely as if the god were a living bully, they set upon him and reduced him to his original elements. Of the accuracy of this narrative we have no proofs except its currency,but that appears to be sufficient in itself.The whole proceeding is not inconsistent with the Chinese notions about gods and spirits.

In view of facts such as those to which we have been directing the reader's attention,it might be most natural for one who was not familiar with the Chinese character,to draw the inference that it cannot be possible that the Chinese have any religion at all.This statement has indeed been often made in explicit language.In Mr.Meadows'work on "The Chinese and Their Rebellions,"he quotes some of the too sweeping generalisations of M.Huc only to denounce them,affirming them to be“baseless calumny of the higher life of a great portion of the human race."Mr.Meadows is ready enough to admit that the Chinese are not attracted either to the bare results of centuries of doctrinal disputes or to the conduct of the nations which accept those results as their creed,but emphatically denies the assertion that the Chinese have“no longing for immortality,no cordial admiration of what is good and great,no unswerving and unshrinking devotion to those who have been good and great,no craving, no yearning of the soul to reverence something high and holy.” Sir Thomas Wade,on the other hand,whose long familiarity with China and the Chinese might be supposed to entitle him to speak with authority on so plain a question as whether the Chinese have or have not a religion,has recently published his opinion as follows:“If religion is held to mean more than mere ethics,I deny that the Chinese have a religion.They have indeed a cult,or rather a mixture of cults,but no creed; innumerable varieties of puerile idolatry,at which they are ready enough to laugh,but which they dare not disregard.”

Into the interesting and by no means easily answered question here raised we do not feel required to enter. It would be easy to discuss it at great length,but we are not certain that any light would be thrown upon it.In our view there is a practical method of approaching the matter,which will serve our purpose much better than abstract discussion.Taoism and Buddhism have greatly affected the Chinese,but the Chinese are not Taoists as such,neither are they Buddhists. They are Confucianists,and whatever may be added to their faith,or whatever may be taken away by the other systems of thought,the Chinese always remain Confucianists. We shall close by endeavouring to show in what respects Confucianism comes short of being a religion such as the Chinese ought to have.In order to do this,we shall quote the language of a distinguished Chinese scholar,whose conclusions cannot be lightly set aside.

At the end of his"Systematical Digest of the Doctrines of Confucius,"Dr.Ernst Faber devotes a section to The Defects and Errors of Confucianism,which are set forth,while at the same time it is acknowledged that there is in Confucianism much that is excellent concerning the relations of man,and many points in which the doctrines of Christian revelation are almost echoed. We quote the four-and-twenty points specified,adding here and there a few words of comment.

1.“Confucianism recognises no relation to a living god.”

2.“There is no distinction made between the human soul and the body,nor is there any clear definition of man,either from a physical or from a physiological point of view.”

The absence of any clear doctrine as to the soul of man is very perplexing to the foreign student of Confucianism.The ultimate outcome of its teaching,in the case of many of the common people,is that they know nothing about any soul at all,except in the sense of animal vitality.When a man dies, there is classical authority for the statement that his“soul” goes upwards towards heaven,and his“animal soul”goes into the earth.But a simpler theory is that so constantly advanced,and which is entirely harmonious with the agnostic materialism of the true Confucianist,that“the soul”or breath dissolves into the air,and the flesh into the dust. It is frequently quite impossible to interest a Chinese in the question whether he has three souls,one soul,or no soul at all.To him the elucidation of such a matter is invested with the same kind and degree of interest which he would feel in learning which particular muscles of the body produce the movement of the organ concerned in eating.As long as the process is allowed to go on with comfort,he does not care in the smallest degree by what name the anatomist designates the muscular fibres which assist the result.In like manner,as long as the Chinese has enough to do to look after the interest of his digestive apparatus,and that of those who are dependent upon him,he is very likely to care nothing either about his"souls"(if he has any)or about theirs,unless it can be shown that the matter is in some way connected with the price of grain.

3."There is no explanation given why it is that some men are born as saints,others as ordinary mortals.”

4.“All men are said to possess the disposition and strength necessary for the attainment of moral perfection,but the contrast with the actual state remains unexplained.”

5.“There is wanting in Confucianism a decided and serious tone in its treatment of the doctrine of sin,for,with the exception of moral retribution in social life,it mentions no punishment for sin.”

6.“Confucianism is generally devoid of a deeper insight into sin and evil.”

7.“Confucianism finds it therefore impossible to explain death.”

8.“Confucianism knows no mediator,none that could restore original nature in accordance with the ideal which man finds in himself.”

9.“Prayer and its ethical power find no place in the system of Confucius."

10."Though confidence is indeed frequently insisted upon, its presupposition,truthfulness in speaking,is never practically urged,but rather the reverse.”

11.“Polygamy is presupposed and tolerated.”

12.“Polytheism is sanctioned.”

13."Fortune-telling,choosing of days,omens,dreams,and other illusions(ph?nixes, etc.)are believed in."

14."Ethics are confounded with external ceremonies,and a precise despotic political form.”

15."The position which Confucius assumed towards ancient institutions is a capricious one.”

16."The assertion that certain musical melodies influence the morals of the people is ridiculous.”

17."The influence of mere good example is exaggerated, and Confucius himself proves it most of all.”

If it be true,as Confucian ethics claim,that the prince is the vessel as the people are the water;that when the cup is round the water will be round,and when the dish is flat the water will be flat--it seems hard to explain how the great men of China have not exerted a stronger influence in the way of modifying the character of those who study their lives.If example is really so powerful as Confucianists represent,how does it happen that as seen in its effects it is so comparatively inert? The virtual deification of the"superior man,"as mentioned below under No.20,is matched by the entire absence of any mediator,as already pointed out under No.8. No matter how"superior"the sage may be,he is obliged to confine himself to giving good advice.If the advice is not taken,he not only cannot help it,but there is no further advice given.

To us that has always appeared to be a singularly suggestive passage in which Confucius said:"I do not open up the truth to one who is not eager to get knowledge,nor help out any one who is not anxious to explain himself.When I have presented one corner of a subject to any one,and he cannot from it learn the other three,I do not repeat the lesson.”The advice which he gives is for superior men only.Such advice is excellent,but it is by no means a prophylactic.When it has failed to act as such,then what is wanted is a restorative.It is idle to stand over the traveller who,having fallen among thieves,is stripped and wounded,and to discourse to him of the importance of joining friendly caravans,of the unadvisa- bility of sustaining serious lesions of the tissues,by which much blood is likely to be lost and the nervous centres injured. The wounded man,already faint from loss of blood,knows all that;indeed,he knew it all the while. What he needs now is not retrospective lectures on the consequences of vio- lating natural laws,but oil,wine,a place of refuge for a pos- sible recovery,and above all,a wise and helpful friend.For the physically disabled,Confucianism may at times do some- thing;for the morally and spiritually wounded it does and can do nothing.

18.“In Confucianism the system of social life is tyranny. Women are slaves.Children have no rights in relation to their parents,whilst subjects are placed in the position of children with regard to their superiors.”

19.“Filial piety is exaggerated into deification of parents.”

20."The net result of Confucius'system,as drawn by him- self,is the worship of genius,i.e., deification of man."

21."There is,with the exception of ancestral worship,which is void of any true ethical value,no clear conception of the dogma of immortality.”

22.“All rewards are expected in this world,so that egotism is unconsciously fostered,and if not avarice at least ambition.”

23."The whole system of Confucianism offers no comfort to ordinary mortals,either in life or in death.”

24.“The history of China shows that Confucianism is in- capable of effecting for the people a new birth to a higher life and nobler efforts,and Confucianism is now in practical life quite alloyed with Shamanistic and Buddhistic ideas and practices.”

Of the strange intermixture of different forms of faith in China we have already spoken.That neither Confucianism nor either of its co-religions is capable of“effecting for the people a new birth to a higher life and nobler efforts”is well recognised by the Chinese themselves. This is strikingly shown in one of their fables,the literary authorship of which we have not ascertained.

According to this account,Confucius,Laotze,and Buddha met one day in the land of the Immortals,and were lamenting the fact that in those degenerate times their excellent doctrines did not seem to make any headway in the Central Empire. After prolonged discussion,it was agreed that the reason must be that while the doctrines themselves are recognised as admirable,human nature is inadequate to live up to them without a constant model. It was accordingly decided that each of the founders of these schools of instruction should materialise himself,go down to earth,and try to find some one who could do what it was so necessary to have done.This plan was at once carried into effect,and in process of time,while wandering about the earth,Confucius came on an old man of venerable appearance,who,however,did not rise at the ap- proach of the sage,but inviting the latter to be seated,en- gaged him in a conversation on the doctrines of antiquity and the degree to which they were at that time neglected and practised. In his discourse the old man showed such pro- found acquaintance with the tenets of the ancients,and dis- played such vast penetration of judgment,that Confucius was greatly delighted,and after a long interview retired.But even when the sage took his leave,the old man did not rise.

Having found Laotze and Buddha,who had been altogether unsuccessful in their search,Confucius related to them his adventure,and recommended that each of them should in turn visit the sitting philosopher,and ascertain whether he was as well versed in their doctrines as in those of Confucius. To his unmixed delight,Laotze found the old man to be almost as familiar with the tenets of Taoism as its founder, and a model of eloquence and fervour. Like Confucius, Laotze was struck by the fact that although maintaining a most respectful attitude,the old man did not rise from his place. It was now the turn of Buddha,who met with the same surprising and gratifying success.The old man still did not rise,but he exhibited an insight into the inner meaning of Buddhism such as not had been seen for ages.

When the three founders of religion met to consult,they were unanimously of the opinion that this rare and astonishing old man was the very one,not only to recommend each of the"three religions,"but also to demonstrate that"the three religions are really one."Accordingly they all three once more presented themselves before the old man in company with each other. They explained the object of their previous visits,and the lofty hopes which the old man's wisdom had excited,that through him all three religions might be revived, and at last reduced to practice.The old man,still seated, listened respectfully and attentively,and replied as follows: "Venerable sages,your benevolence is high as heaven and deep as the seas. Your plan is admirably profound in its wisdom. But you have made an unfortunate selection in the agent through whom you wish to accomplish this mighty re- form. It is true that I have looked into the books of Reason and of the Law,and into the Classics. It is also true that I have a partial perception of their sublimity and unity.But there is one circumstance of which you have not taken ac- count.Perhaps you are not aware of it.It is only from my waist upward that I am a man;below that point I am made of stone.My forte is to discuss the duties of men from all the various points of view,but I am so unfortunately constituted that I can never reduce any of them to practice.”Confucius, Laotze,and Buddha sighed deeply,and vanished from the earth,and since that day no effort has been made to find a mortal who is able to exhibit in his life the teachings of the three religions.

A comparison has often been made between the condition of China at the present time,and that of the Roman Empire during the first century of our era.That the moral state of China now is far higher than that of the Roman Empire then, scarcely admits of a rational doubt,but in China,as in Rome, religious faith has reached the point of decay.Of China it might be said,as Gibbon remarked of Rome,that to the com- mon people all religions are equally true,to the philosopher all are equally false,and to the magistrate all are equally use- ful. Of the Emperor of China,as of the Roman Emperor,it might be affirmed that he is“at once a high-priest,an atheist, and a god”! To such a state has Confucianism,mixed with polytheism and superstition,conducted the Empire. There is something which is worse than pure atheism,and that is entire indifference as to whether atheism is true.In China polytheism and atheism are but opposite facets of the same die,and are more or less consciously held for true by multitudes of educated Chinese,and with no sense of contradiction. Its absolute indifference to the profoundest spiritual truths in the nature of man is the most melancholy characteristic of the Chinese mind,its ready acceptance of a body without a soul,of a soul without a spirit, of a spirit without a life,of a cosmos without a cause,a Universe without a God.