《中國人的性格》是美國傳教士阿瑟·史密斯（明恩溥）基于1872年赴華傳教期間的社會(huì)觀察撰寫的著作，首版英文名《Chinese Characteristics》于19世紀(jì)末問世，。作者在華生活逾五十年，書中融合人類學(xué)視角與傳教士立場(chǎng)，記錄了晚清民眾的性格特征與文化形態(tài)。

全書以27個(gè)主題章節(jié)剖析中國人行為模式，包含“保全面子”“省吃儉用”等生活哲學(xué)，以及“漠視精確”“因循守舊”等社會(huì)現(xiàn)象。通過對(duì)比西方工業(yè)文明，著重探討東方特有的生存韌性，如環(huán)境適應(yīng)力與疼痛耐受性。書中案例多源自山東鄉(xiāng)村生活經(jīng)歷，涉及衣食住行、孝悌觀念等主題，部分結(jié)論因宗教立場(chǎng)存在視角爭(zhēng)議。該著作開創(chuàng)西方研究中國國民性先河，被譯成多國文字，成為近代中西文化互鑒的重要文本。

第二十五章 缺乏誠信

“信”，英語里一般譯為“sincerity”；在漢字中，它是個(gè)會(huì)意字，由“人”和“言”兩部分組成，其意義也是這兩部分字面所表達(dá)的?！拔宄！敝?，它位列最后。許多了解中國的人認(rèn)為，“信”在天朝上邦，事實(shí)上可能是最罕見的美德。他們也將會(huì)同意基德教授的看法。基德教授在談了中國人“信”的觀念之后，接著又說：“如果在民族性格中有一種美德，不僅在行動(dòng)中受到蔑視，而且也和現(xiàn)有的處世態(tài)度形成強(qiáng)烈的反差，這一特征非信莫屬。中國人公開的和私下里的表現(xiàn)，都與信背道而馳，他們的敵人也以此諷刺他們，虛偽矯飾，欺騙、不真誠和趨炎附勢(shì)是這個(gè)民族的顯著特征?！边@種評(píng)價(jià)多大程度上符合事實(shí)，我們最好在詳細(xì)地考察了下面的事例后再作判斷。

我們完全有理由認(rèn)為，現(xiàn)代中國人和古代中國人沒有多少差異，而且我們還深信，有資格的學(xué)者也會(huì)支持這一觀點(diǎn)。在信的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)上，中國人不同于西方人。一些思想敏銳的學(xué)者，在仔細(xì)推敲中國的古代經(jīng)典時(shí)，會(huì)從字里行間發(fā)現(xiàn)很多拐彎抹角、含糊其辭的地方。他還會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)，對(duì)西方人的直率，中國人有句很有意思的話：“直率而無分寸就成了無禮?！薄墩撜Z》中孺悲與孔子的故事，西方人覺得意味深長(zhǎng)，而儒生們卻一點(diǎn)兒也不理解。下面一段選自萊格的譯文：“孺思想拜見孔子，孔子托辭有病，謝絕見他。但傳話人一出房門，孔子便取下瑟，邊彈邊唱，故意讓孺悲聽見?！笨鬃硬幌虢右娙姹@樣的人，便以中國的方式來解決。

孔子的做法后來為孟子所仿效。孟子曾在某國作為客人被邀請(qǐng)上朝，但他希望國王能給他以第一次召見的榮譽(yù)，因此托病不出。第二天，為表明這只是個(gè)借口，便在別處覲見國王。陪伴孟子的官員，夜里與孟子就孔子的上述行為，進(jìn)行了一次長(zhǎng)談，但討論只局限在禮節(jié)慣例方面，沒有涉及到為方便而撒謊的道德問題，也沒有任何證據(jù)表明有人思考過這一問題，現(xiàn)代的孔門弟子在給學(xué)生解釋這一段時(shí)，也沒有超出上面的討論。

在保存典籍的本能方面，古代中國人遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)高出許多國家的當(dāng)代人。他們歷史雖然冗長(zhǎng)；但包羅萬象。很多西方學(xué)者似乎最推崇中國的歷史，言辭中常流露出過分的信任。維也納大學(xué)教師基·辛格博士1788年7月在《中國評(píng)論》上發(fā)表了一篇論文，其中有這樣一段：“科學(xué)考據(jù)很早就認(rèn)識(shí)到，并且越來越證明了中國古典文獻(xiàn)的歷史真實(shí)性?！崩纾钚乱淮凶顝V博的中國研究者——瑞恰斯芬，在討論中國人性格中驚人的矛盾成分時(shí)，發(fā)現(xiàn)一方面他們?cè)诮y(tǒng)計(jì)記錄歷史事件時(shí)，具有忠實(shí)精神和探索真理的強(qiáng)烈愿望，另一方面在日常生活和外交談判中處處充滿謊言與欺騙，此二者形成了鮮明的對(duì)比。精確地記錄歷史有兩種不同的途徑：一，按特定的順序和比重?cái)⑹鍪录?；二、根?jù)一定的精神和動(dòng)機(jī)分析。闡釋事件。一些廣泛地研究了中國歷史的人認(rèn)為，從前者看，這些歷史著作無疑大大地超出了撰寫的時(shí)代；從后者看，它們絕沒有辛格博士所認(rèn)為的謹(jǐn)嚴(yán)。對(duì)不了解的事物，我們不發(fā)表意見，只是想讓人們注意，一個(gè)民族沉溺于謊言，同時(shí)又能培養(yǎng)出尊重事實(shí)的史官，即使不是史無前例，也是獨(dú)一無二的。強(qiáng)烈的愛或恨扭曲其他國家的歷史，在中國，難道它們就不起作用嗎？在世界其他地區(qū)發(fā)揮作用的因素難道在中國會(huì)失效嗎？

不僅儒家思想本身存在較大缺陷，而孔大圣人也不嚴(yán)格尊重史實(shí)。萊格博士并不緊盯著“圣人生平的暇疵”不放，而是重點(diǎn)研究孔子編篡《春秋》時(shí)處理歷史材料的方式。這部著作記錄了魯國二百三十四年的歷史，向后延續(xù)到孔子死后兩年。下面一段引自萊格博士有關(guān)儒教的演講，發(fā)表在他的多卷本《中國宗教》中：“孟子把《春秋》視為孔子最偉大的成就，說它的問世使亂臣賊子懼。作者自己也說過同樣的話，并說世人因此了解他，也因此毀謗他。”但是當(dāng)孔子談到世人因此毀謗他時(shí)，不知他心里是否充滿了疑慮。事實(shí)上，這部書不僅極為簡(jiǎn)約，而且含糊其辭，具有欺騙性?！洞呵铩穯柺篮?，不足百年，公羊便對(duì)之作修正與補(bǔ)正，說《春秋》“為尊者諱，為長(zhǎng)者諱，為賢者諱”。我在《中國經(jīng)典》第五卷中指出，“諱”包含三種含義——省略，掩蓋和篡改。對(duì)此，我們能說什么呢？……我常常想快刀斬亂麻，干脆否認(rèn)《春秋》的真誠性和真實(shí)性。但是孔子生活在他記錄的那個(gè)時(shí)代，他把歷史與自己的筆法緊密地聯(lián)系在一起了，如果一個(gè)外國學(xué)習(xí)者采用曲解的辦法，使他看不到大圣人不尊重史實(shí)的缺點(diǎn)，中國的統(tǒng)治者和大多數(shù)學(xué)者可不會(huì)憐憫他，也不會(huì)同情他的苦惱?？鬃蛹捌涞茏右恢背珜?dǎo)真實(shí)性，但《春秋》使他們的同胞在可能損及帝國或圣人名譽(yù)的情況下，學(xué)會(huì)了掩蓋真相。

我們已經(jīng)看出，宣稱中國歷史真實(shí)的人只準(zhǔn)備承認(rèn)，在中國，真實(shí)僅存在歷史的記述中。當(dāng)然，不可能證明每一個(gè)中國人都撒謊。即使有可能，我們也不愿那樣做。等到中國人的良知蘇醒，開始關(guān)注自己的信義時(shí)，自己會(huì)提供最有力的證據(jù)。他們?cè)谡務(wù)撟约旱拿褡鍟r(shí)，我們經(jīng)?？梢月牭?，像海南島首領(lǐng)所說的：“我們一開口，謊言就誕生?！笨墒牵瑢?duì)我們來說，中國人并不像一些人認(rèn)為的，是為撒謊而撒謊，撒謊是為了獲得謊言之外的某種利益。巴伯先生說：“他們不說真話，同樣也不相信真話。”一位學(xué)過英語的中國小伙子在拜訪筆者的朋友時(shí)，為增加詞匯量，希望學(xué)會(huì)說“你撒謊”的英語表述方式。我的朋友就告訴他，這句話最好別用來說外國人，否則，肯定會(huì)挨揍。小伙子毫不掩飾地對(duì)此表示驚訝，他覺得這句話就像說“你騙人”一樣，不會(huì)傷害人。庫克先生，1857年在作倫敦《泰晤士報(bào)》駐中國記者時(shí)，談到西方人最討厭被稱為說謊者，“但是，如果你對(duì)中國人說同樣的話，他一點(diǎn)兒也不會(huì)氣惱，也不會(huì)感到受了侮辱。他不否認(rèn)事實(shí)，只回答道：‘我可不敢對(duì)閣下撒謊’。說一個(gè)中國人‘撒謊成性，眼下正在撒謊’，就像對(duì)英國人說，‘你這家伙就愛說俏皮話，我保證現(xiàn)在你腦袋里裝滿了糟透了的俏皮話’?！?/p>

中國人平時(shí)說話缺乏誠信，雖未達(dá)到作偽的程度，但他們所說的每一件，幾乎都不是真相，真相在中國是最難獲得的，誰都不敢保證，自己獲得了事實(shí)的全部真相。即使有人尋求你的幫助，比如打官司，他希望你全權(quán)代理，你仍會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)，他向你隱瞞了重要的事實(shí)。這顯然是支吾搪塞的本能所致，而非蓄意如此，盡管這樣做，受害者只能是他本人。無論你從何處著手處理，整個(gè)事情一直到最后才會(huì)顯露出來。較為了解中國的人不會(huì)聽了一方陳述就覺得掌握了全部情況，他寧愿把聽到的和其他情況結(jié)合起來，最后找來幾位他最信任的人，就那些陳述再調(diào)查一番，才判斷事情的真相。

缺乏誠信，再加上猜疑，就足以解釋為什么中國人經(jīng)常交談了很長(zhǎng)時(shí)間，卻沒有談出任何實(shí)質(zhì)性的內(nèi)容，對(duì)外國人來說，中國人不可理喻，主要?dú)w咎于他們虛偽。我們不知道他們?cè)谙Ｇ笫裁?，但總覺得他們的言談背后隱藏著更多的東西。因此，當(dāng)一個(gè)中國人走到你跟前，貼在你耳邊，神秘地告訴你一個(gè)你感興趣的中國人的事，你不可能不心頭一沉。你不能確定他是在說事實(shí)，還是在誣陷那人。你也從來不能保證中國人的最后通牒真的就是最后的。對(duì)于生意人、旅行家、外交官來說，這個(gè)很容易闡釋的命題，包含著諸多令人煩惱的因素。

所有事情的真正原因幾乎都難以預(yù)料，即便知道，也不能確保是事實(shí)。每一個(gè)中國人，即使沒受過教育，其本性也像一頭狡猾的烏賊，受到追蹤時(shí)，立刻能噴出大量的墨汁，使自己退到最安全的地方。如果你在旅途中，受到拜訪，請(qǐng)求捐款給一些窮人，他們希望開發(fā)新的土地，你的仆人不會(huì)像你一樣，干脆說：“你花錢不關(guān)我的事，隨你的便?！倍恰懊鎺Ш⒆影愕男θ荨苯忉尩?，你袋里的錢只夠你自己用的。這樣，你就無法捐款了。我們也很少發(fā)現(xiàn)某個(gè)看門的人，會(huì)像外國人對(duì)待他那樣，對(duì)一群中國人說：“這兒你不能進(jìn)。”他只是在一旁悄悄地看著，等他們一進(jìn)去，他就放狗。

中國人能自覺守約者，寥寥無幾。這與他們誤解的天賦、淡薄的時(shí)間觀念有關(guān)。不管失約的真正原因是什么，你將有趣地發(fā)現(xiàn)他們會(huì)尋找各種各樣的借口。一般，中國人被指責(zé)爽約時(shí)，會(huì)說道，這個(gè)約會(huì)無足輕重，重要的約會(huì)，他總會(huì)守約。如果譴責(zé)他的某個(gè)缺點(diǎn)，發(fā)誓改正的話就會(huì)像流水一樣從他嘴里噴瀉而出。他承認(rèn)錯(cuò)誤很全面——實(shí)際上是太全面了，除了信用之外，你再?zèng)]別的可期待了。

一位中國先生，曾被雇來抄寫，注釋一些格言。在一些古老的警句之后，他解釋道，不能馬上拒絕別人的請(qǐng)求，相反，即使實(shí)際上不想幫忙，也要表面上答應(yīng)?！巴系矫魈?，接著，再一個(gè)明天，這樣，請(qǐng)求者心里會(huì)得到安慰?！必?fù)債的人一般也采用這種方法。誰也別指望一次就可把債討回，要債者也不會(huì)因此失望，欠債者會(huì)信誓旦旦地說，下一次還。然后再下一次，再下一次。

最能說明中國人虛偽的，是他們對(duì)待孩子的態(tài)度。孩子們從小就學(xué)會(huì)不誠實(shí)，而且無論孩子本人，還是施教者竟都沒有意識(shí)到這一點(diǎn)。孩子還在牙牙學(xué)語、朦朦朧朧懂話的時(shí)候，大人就告訴他，要是不聽話，藏在大人袖子里的怪物就會(huì)出來咬他。外國人也常被比做未知的怪物，這也能較好地說明為什么中國人經(jīng)常對(duì)我們說臟話。孩子們很小就對(duì)我們懷有模糊的恐懼感，長(zhǎng)大后，一旦意識(shí)到我們并不可怕，只是可笑而已，怎么會(huì)不在街上哄趕我們呢？

車夫拉著外國人，后面跟著一群高聲喊叫的頑童。他被激怒了，向他們吼道，他要捉幾個(gè)，綁在車后面拖死。船夫遇到這種情況，也會(huì)嚇唬道，用開水澆他們。“我揍你”、“我砍死你”這類話，對(duì)懂點(diǎn)事的孩子來說，就等于“別那樣做”。

中國人要想裝得“懂禮”，必須掌握一大套詞匯，他們能表現(xiàn)出說話者的謙卑，聽話者的高貴。“懂禮”的人提到自己的妻子，如果必須稱呼，就說“拙荊”，或其他類似的文雅的謙稱。農(nóng)村人，雖然不會(huì)文雅的辭令，也能抓住“禮”的精髓，稱和自己患難與共的伴侶為“臭婆娘”。中國人自己的一個(gè)故事，可以恰當(dāng)?shù)卣f明他們注意禮節(jié)的特征。一位拜訪者身穿最好的禮服，坐在客廳里等候主人的出現(xiàn)。一只老鼠正在梁上嬉戲，把鼻子伸進(jìn)梁上的油罐中，客人的突然到來嚇了老鼠一跳，它轉(zhuǎn)身就逃，結(jié)果碰翻了油罐，正打在客人的身上，華麗的外衣立刻沾滿了油污。正當(dāng)客人氣得臉色發(fā)青時(shí)，主人進(jìn)來了。一陣寒喧之后，客人解釋道：“鄙人來到貴舍，坐于貴梁之下，不慎驚動(dòng)貴鼠，貴鼠走，貴油罐落于鄙人寒服之上，狼狽之極實(shí)令足下見笑。”

不用說，很少有外國人能以中國人的方式招待中國人，這需要長(zhǎng)期的鍛煉。主人走向宴席時(shí)，要熱情地向一群客人鞠躬，溫和地招呼：“諸位請(qǐng)坐，請(qǐng)用膳?！被虬巡璞e到唇邊，環(huán)視左右，鄭重地對(duì)客人說：“諸位請(qǐng)用茶?！备钊穗y以接受的是在不同場(chǎng)合的“叩頭”、“叩頭”，來表示“我能、我會(huì)、我可以、我必須、我應(yīng)該”（視情況而定）“拜倒在你腳下”。偶爾還會(huì)插入這樣的話：“我該打，我該死”，意思是禮數(shù)不周，忽略了小細(xì)節(jié)。或者，騎著馬，中途遇到熟人，就停下來，對(duì)他說：“我下來，你騎吧。”一點(diǎn)也不考慮你往哪兒走，或他的做法是否符合情理。即使是最沒教養(yǎng)、最無知的中國人也會(huì)經(jīng)常擺出邀請(qǐng)的姿態(tài)，迫使最無同情心的西方人無意識(shí)中對(duì)此贊嘆不已，因?yàn)閯e人會(huì)，而他不會(huì)。我們?cè)诟鞣N場(chǎng)合不斷看到的小小的禮儀，是個(gè)人對(duì)整個(gè)社會(huì)的奉獻(xiàn)，它使得社會(huì)摩擦減少了。如果拒絕作出這種奉獻(xiàn)，就會(huì)遭到懲罰，因?yàn)樗呱狭似缤?。車夫停下來問路，假如忘了取下辮子，很可能會(huì)被指錯(cuò)路，另外，還可能會(huì)遭到辱罵。

判斷送什么禮物最合適，在東方，這也是一門學(xué)問，其他國家可能也如此。對(duì)于收禮物的人，有些東西，絕對(duì)不能接受，而另外一些東西則不能全部接受。假如外國人在這方面自作主張，一定會(huì)做錯(cuò)事。一般情況下，有人送禮，要慎重對(duì)待，特別是在出乎意料的情況下。即使是生兒子這樣的喜事，也要小心，“我怕希臘人，即使他帶著禮物”，這句格言在世界各地都具有永久的生命力，在中國也一樣。送禮背后總有文章，像中國歇后語說的“老鼠拉木锨，大頭在后面”，或者，換句話說（實(shí)質(zhì)上是），要求的回報(bào)要比送的多。

許多居住在中國的外國人，對(duì)送禮的虛偽性，都有所體會(huì)，我們?cè)行沂煜ち怂投Y的全部細(xì)節(jié)。為了對(duì)幾個(gè)外國人表示尊敬，一個(gè)小村莊為他們搭臺(tái)唱戲，當(dāng)然，誰都明白，外國人應(yīng)該設(shè)宴回敬。可是村民們對(duì)此執(zhí)意拒絕，請(qǐng)求他們捐一筆款，哪怕是一點(diǎn)點(diǎn)也行，可以用于公共設(shè)施的建設(shè)。在這個(gè)村子，他們照做了。此后不久，又有十“一個(gè)村子，說是被外國人救濟(jì)災(zāi)荒和醫(yī)療救助的精神深深地感動(dòng)，接二連三地派代表請(qǐng)他們?nèi)タ磻?。這些村子都清楚，邀請(qǐng)肯定會(huì)被拒絕。每個(gè)代表聽到被拒絕的消息時(shí)，臉上都露出同樣悲哀的驚愕神情，然后又全部轉(zhuǎn)向捐款問題，仍然是公共設(shè)施。他們每個(gè)人都是點(diǎn)到為止，沒有再作進(jìn)一步的表示。

不單單是外國人在這方面受到困擾。富有的中國人不幸遇到喜事時(shí)，鄰居就會(huì)拿著一點(diǎn)兒不值得一提的禮物前來祝賀，比如為新生嬰兒買的不值錢的玩具，但是主人必須設(shè)宴答謝——在中國，這是一種永遠(yuǎn)合乎時(shí)宜的方式。這時(shí)，即使最不了解中國的人，也會(huì)贊嘆中國格言的精妙：“吃自己的，吃出淚水；吃別人的，吃出汗水?！敝魅诉€要被迫裝出一副真誠歡迎的樣子。為了不丟“面子”，滿腔怒火全都?jí)阂衷诙亲永?，丟“面子”可比損失食物更要命。

這表明，中國人有許多行為都是為了“講面子”有意做出來的。在受雇時(shí)，中國人對(duì)待外國人的大部分禮節(jié)，只是一種虛偽的客套，尤其是在大城市中，將一個(gè)人在公共場(chǎng)合和私下里的行為比較一下，很容易發(fā)現(xiàn)這一點(diǎn)。據(jù)說，有一位中國先生，在他的外國主人家里，向來被奉為遵守禮節(jié)的楷模。可假如他在北京街頭遇到主人，就會(huì)怒目而視，好像要“殺掉他”，因?yàn)樘热艉椭魅舜蛘泻簦蜁?huì)讓別人看出，這位飽讀詩書的先生在某種程度上要依靠野蠻的外國人來混碗飯吃——盡管這情形已是眾所周知，但在表面上，尤其在公共場(chǎng)合不能承認(rèn)。幾個(gè)中國人進(jìn)屋時(shí)，只給屋里的中國人行禮，完全無視其中外國人的存在，是很正常的事。中國老師會(huì)稱贊他的外國學(xué)生聽力準(zhǔn)確，發(fā)音完美，在接受語言方面會(huì)很快超過其他同學(xué)?？赏瑫r(shí)，這位學(xué)生的一些奇怪的發(fā)音錯(cuò)誤，卻會(huì)成為這位老師與他同事間的笑料。一般情況下，雇來教漢語的老師理所當(dāng)然被視為最有權(quán)決定他漢語語音正確性的人。

另一個(gè)可以說明中國禮貌的表面性與虛偽性的現(xiàn)象，是口頭上應(yīng)承，而實(shí)際上不做。送禮沒有帶來預(yù)期的好處，送禮者也不灰心喪氣，因?yàn)樵缇椭朗虑榭赡苻k不成，但送禮者的面子保住了。同樣，假如在酒館里，你和老板在付款上發(fā)生了爭(zhēng)執(zhí)，你的車夫可能會(huì)站出來調(diào)停，決定不足的部分由他來付，然后將手伸進(jìn)你的錢袋。如果他掏自己的錢，最后賬仍會(huì)算在你頭上。倘若提醒是他自己要付的，他會(huì)說：“你能指望參加葬禮的人一同被埋進(jìn)墳?zāi)箚?？?/p>

盡管表里不一，中國仍有許多人是真正謙遜的，不過，無論男女，肯定也有不少人的謙遜是假的。當(dāng)人們清醒地意識(shí)到，某些觀念難以直接表達(dá)時(shí)，他們就談?wù)撘恍┎挥淇斓氖麻g接地來表達(dá)?？蛇@些談吐優(yōu)雅的人，一旦被激怒，連最難聽的話都罵得出。

虛假的謙遜與虛偽的同情同是由空話組成。但是，中國人不應(yīng)因此受到譴責(zé)，因?yàn)樗麄儧]有足夠的財(cái)富長(zhǎng)期維持對(duì)如此眾多人的同情。最令人惡心的倒不是空洞的同情，而是對(duì)死者假裝同情時(shí)，又流露出興高采烈的神情。巴伯先生提到四川的一個(gè)苦力，看到兩條野狗在纖道上吞吃死尸，竟止不住哈哈大笑。梅杜斯先生告訴我們，他的漢語老師聽到自己的好朋友死得很有趣，竟也捧腹大笑。最疼愛的孩子夭折，長(zhǎng)時(shí)間的悲痛會(huì)使父母變得表情麻木，這與上面的情形不同，因?yàn)槌聊谋春瓦`背人性、對(duì)自己自然感情的粗魯愚弄之間有著巨大的差異。

如前所述，西方人和中國人實(shí)行貿(mào)易往來已有數(shù)百年的歷史了，在此過程中，中國人的商業(yè)信譽(yù)也多次得到驗(yàn)證。為不使結(jié)論顯得有如空穴來風(fēng)，應(yīng)該舉些例證作基礎(chǔ)。下面就是一個(gè)范例。香港和上海銀行經(jīng)理卡麥倫先生在他的告別發(fā)言中，有這樣一段：“我已談了西方商團(tuán)的高標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的貿(mào)易原則，在這方面，中國人一點(diǎn)也不落后。實(shí)際上，沒有誰能像中國商人和銀行家那樣，很快贏得我們的信任。當(dāng)然，任何事情都有例外。但為了表明我有足夠的理由得出這一有力的結(jié)論，我可以告訴諸位，過去二十五年內(nèi)，我們的銀行在上海與中國人做了很大一筆生意，總額達(dá)數(shù)億兩白銀，迄今為止，我們還未遇到過不守信用的中國人”。對(duì)這段發(fā)言最好的評(píng)價(jià)可能是三年后發(fā)生的另一件事：這家銀行在香港的一位買辦，使銀行在蒙受損失，沒有保障的情況下，仍能每年賺取一百萬元的利潤(rùn)。

中國商業(yè)活動(dòng)中的零售與整賣是否有本質(zhì)區(qū)別，我們無從得知。但為了使我們的思考顯得更全面，確實(shí)應(yīng)該考慮一下，上述結(jié)果是否完全沒有中國人令人贊嘆的責(zé)任感的作用——這是一個(gè)西方人應(yīng)該好好學(xué)習(xí)的優(yōu)點(diǎn)，中國人在與西方人做生意時(shí)，講信用可以使他們獲得最大限度的利潤(rùn)，所以，我們獲得中國人毫無疑問的最大限度的信任，本來就是自然而然的事。盡管如此，長(zhǎng)期廣泛的觀察仍只能證明：中國人的商業(yè)活動(dòng)是這個(gè)民族缺乏信用的最大例證。

一位聰明的學(xué)者，寫過一篇很有意思的論文，論述中國人的普通商業(yè)活動(dòng)只是一方欺騙另一方的活動(dòng)。這兩個(gè)人之間的關(guān)系，一般來說，就是雅各布和拉班之間的關(guān)系，或者像中國說的，是鐵刷遇銅盆。沒有誰不知道，讓孩子做生意，其實(shí)就等于毀了他。假秤、假尺、假錢和假貨——所有的這些現(xiàn)象在中國都難以避免。即使一些大字號(hào)，掛著醒目的招牌，告訴顧客，本店“貨真價(jià)實(shí)”，“絕無二價(jià)”，實(shí)際上絕不是這么一回事。

我們無意于表明中國無誠實(shí)，不過，根據(jù)我們的觀察和經(jīng)驗(yàn)，很難保證可以找到。和一個(gè)不重視事實(shí)的民族交往，還會(huì)出現(xiàn)別的情況嗎？一個(gè)衣冠楚楚的學(xué)者，大言不慚地告訴外國人，他不識(shí)字。可如果遞給他一本小書，他會(huì)毫不遲疑地悄悄地從人群中溜走，錢都不付，雖然那本小書至多只值三個(gè)銅板。對(duì)此，他一點(diǎn)兒也不覺得羞恥，反倒沾沾自喜，把愚蠢的外國人騙了，那家伙竟然相信一個(gè)完全陌生的人。中國人向外國人買東西，經(jīng)常少付一個(gè)銅錢。他宣稱，身上沒錢了。如果你告訴他，他的耳朵上正夾著一枚銅錢呢，他會(huì)極不情愿地取下來交給你，那情形就跟受了騙似的。同樣，一個(gè)人會(huì)磨蹭“老半天”，想免費(fèi)從你那兒得到點(diǎn)東西，理由是他一個(gè)錢也沒有?？墒亲詈髤s會(huì)取出一大串銅錢，滿臉不高興地遞給你，叮囑你只取他應(yīng)付的錢。假如你相信了他，讓他不付錢就把東西拿走，他會(huì)心花怒放，就像殺死了一條蛇。

中國人一向有向親戚“借東西”的習(xí)慣，而且總是有意無意地不打招呼，這大概也是社會(huì)團(tuán)結(jié)的一種表現(xiàn)吧?！敖琛眮淼臇|西大部分被立即送進(jìn)了當(dāng)鋪，主人想要時(shí)，必須自己拿錢去取。教會(huì)學(xué)校的一個(gè)中國男孩，在偷一個(gè)管學(xué)生宿舍的單身女士的錢時(shí)，被發(fā)現(xiàn)了。在不容置辯的證據(jù)面前，他抽抽搭搭地解釋說，在家時(shí)，他一直習(xí)慣于偷媽媽的錢，而這位外國老師太像他的媽媽了，于是，他不由地想偷一偷。

中國社會(huì)明顯存在許多邪惡，西方無疑也存在，但最重要的是，要清醒地意識(shí)到兩者之間的本質(zhì)區(qū)別。我們前面說過，中國人缺乏信義，其事雖不常見，但經(jīng)常可以找到。一些例子，在我們討論其他論題時(shí)，已經(jīng)列舉了，還有一些應(yīng)作詳細(xì)的論述。

要是具備必要的知識(shí)，可以就中國人的敲詐勒索寫一套非常有趣的書——上至龍椅上的皇帝，下至最卑賤的乞丐，人人都那樣干。中國人具有注重實(shí)際的智慧，他們惜以使敲詐勒索形成一個(gè)完備的行為體系，每個(gè)人就像離不開大氣層一樣，脫離不了這一天羅地網(wǎng)的籠罩。它是如此惡毒，墮落，除非對(duì)整個(gè)帝國進(jìn)行徹底整頓，才能將其鏟除。

中國人的性格，以及中國的現(xiàn)狀，必然導(dǎo)致西方人很難以務(wù)實(shí)的態(tài)度在最大范圍內(nèi)同中國人交往，同時(shí)還能保住“上等人”的名譽(yù)——假如他有幸獲得這一名譽(yù)。人們經(jīng)常說，車夫、船夫、酒館老板、苦力、買賣中間人，不論犯什么罪，按常規(guī)，一律殺頭。他們，以及與他們地位相當(dāng)?shù)娜?，和外國人間的關(guān)系很特殊。因?yàn)橥鈬藢幵溉淌芷墼p，也不愿引起社會(huì)風(fēng)波。這方面，他們一般既沒有興趣也沒有能力。然而中國人內(nèi)部如果破壞了公正原則，卻只有通過社會(huì)風(fēng)波才能使社會(huì)最終達(dá)到平衡。

一個(gè)人難以做到不偏不倚時(shí)，努力做到這一點(diǎn)，他一定是個(gè)非凡的人物。既不猜疑，又不輕信，是中庸之道最完美的體現(xiàn)。如果我們對(duì)似乎必需的不誠實(shí)表示不滿，敏于判斷人的性格的中國人，就會(huì)把我們歸入“性情人物”那一類。佛的涅盤境界，對(duì)于易激動(dòng)的人來說，想時(shí)刻保持，并不容易，即使我們能夠保持這種寧靜的品性，也會(huì)被當(dāng)成被進(jìn)一步任意勒索的最佳對(duì)象。有一個(gè)典型的中國人，受雇為外國人做事。有一天，看見一個(gè)小販沿街叫賣泥捏的外國小人，那些小人造型精巧，服飾得體。他就停下來，看了一會(huì)兒，對(duì)小販說：“啊，你玩的不過是玩具，我玩弄的可是真家伙?！?/p>

勿需贅言，就我們所知，中國政府似乎是我們正在討論的這一特點(diǎn)的重要例證。在整個(gè)中外關(guān)系史上，以及有名的中國官僚與民眾的關(guān)系史上，也都可以找到這種例子。各級(jí)官員經(jīng)常頒布的文告，就是一個(gè)獨(dú)特、簡(jiǎn)明的例證。這些文告篇幅冗長(zhǎng)，文辭華美，內(nèi)容繁雜，表現(xiàn)出高尚的道德境界。唯一缺少的就是真實(shí)，因?yàn)檫@些華美的命令并不準(zhǔn)備讓人們?nèi)?zhí)行。這一點(diǎn)，寫的人和看的人都很清楚，從不會(huì)發(fā)生誤解?！爸袊偷纳胶凸?，就像盧梭的《懺悔錄》，情感高尚，而行為卑鄙。他砍下十萬顆頭顱，卻引用孟子的話論述生命的神圣。他把修筑堤壩的錢塞進(jìn)自己的腰包，導(dǎo)致河水淹沒一個(gè)省，卻為人民背井離鄉(xiāng)而哀嘆。他高聲痛斥發(fā)假誓的人，卻在簽定一項(xiàng)協(xié)議后，私下里說，那不過是一時(shí)騙人的玩藝兒?！蔽鹑葜靡桑袊灿泄裏o私的官員，不過很難找到而已，而且，他們的生活環(huán)境，使他們處在孤立無援的境地，無法如愿以償。把最有機(jī)會(huì)了解中國經(jīng)典的人的處境和這些經(jīng)典的教義比較一下，明顯可以看出，他們?cè)谝龑?dǎo)社會(huì)走向更高一種境界時(shí)，是多么的無能為力。

“你知道多少值得信任的中國人？”這里僅指受過正規(guī)教育的中國人。不同的人，有著不同的經(jīng)驗(yàn)和評(píng)價(jià)中國人的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，因此回答也千差萬別。大多數(shù)外國人會(huì)回答：“很少”，“七、八個(gè)”，“一打”，視情況而定。有時(shí)，也有人回答：“很多”，“多得記不清”，可是，我們深信，在有見識(shí)和辨別能力的人當(dāng)中，做出這種回答的肯定極少。

觀察被一個(gè)民族視為理所當(dāng)然的事，是一種富有智慧的做法。在探討中國人相互猜疑的特征時(shí)，我們已經(jīng)看出，中國人把不信任別人看成很自然的事，其理由他們心里都很明白。這種狀況使得中國的前途充滿了不確定性。這個(gè)民族不是由精英分子來統(tǒng)治，相反，掌握全部權(quán)力的是帝國中最卑鄙、無恥的家伙。一位聰明的道臺(tái)，對(duì)外國人說：“皇帝以下的所有官員都是壞蛋，全該殺掉，但是殺了我們沒有用，下一任仍會(huì)和我們一樣壞?！敝袊V語說，蛇知道自己的窟在哪兒。另一個(gè)很有意味的現(xiàn)象是，中國的官僚階層受到商人階層的極度不信任。他們知道，所謂的“改革”，不過是一層表面的外殼，不久，就會(huì)脫落。一個(gè)中國的泥瓦匠，花了很長(zhǎng)時(shí)間，用沒調(diào)和好的灰漿抹平蓋得很糟的煙囪與屋頂，可他心里很清楚，第一次生火，煙囪會(huì)四處冒煙；第一次下雨，屋頂會(huì)漏水。在中國，這不過是一樁極平常的事。

中國有足夠的實(shí)力開發(fā)各處的資源，只要有信心，羞怯的資本就會(huì)從隱蔽的地方走出來。在中國，開發(fā)資源所需要的各種知識(shí)都十分豐富，各類人才應(yīng)有盡有。但是，假如沒有建立在真誠基礎(chǔ)上的彼此信任，這一切都不足以使帝國復(fù)興。

幾年前，一位善于思考的中國人來向筆者請(qǐng)教，如何解決某個(gè)地區(qū)打井難的問題。中國人打井，一般是井內(nèi)從上至下都用磚頭砌上?？稍诋?dāng)?shù)?，井打好后，過了一段時(shí)間，整個(gè)地面就會(huì)下沉，井壁也隨之坍塌，只剩一個(gè)小洞，井也漸漸地干枯了。治療中國長(zhǎng)期忍受的病痛，與對(duì)直隸省的這個(gè)不幸地區(qū)的補(bǔ)救相同，一切藥方都難以將其根治。所有的治療都是表面的，整個(gè)帝國最終只能像滿載珠寶的大車陷進(jìn)絕望的泥潭。

英文原版：

XXV. THE ABSENCE OFSINCERITY

HE Chinese ideograph which is commonly translated “sincerity”is composed of the radicals denoting man and words. Its meaning lies upon the surface.It is the last in the series of the Five Constant Virtues enumerated by the Chinese,and in the opinion of many who are well acquainted with them it is in fact about the last virtue which in the Celes- tial Empire is likely to be met with on any considerable scale. Many who know the Chinese will agree with the observation of Professor Kidd,who,after speaking of the Chinese doc- trine of“sincerity,"continues:“But if this virtue had been chosen as a national characteristic,not only to be set at de- fiance in practice,but to form the most striking contrast to existing manners,a more appropriate one than sincerity could not have been found.So opposed is the public and private character of the Chinese to genuine sincerity,that an enemy might have selected it as ironically descriptive of their con- duct in contrast with their pretensions.Falsehood,duplic- ity,insincerity,and obsequious accommodation to favourable circumstances are national features remarkably prominent.” How far this judgment is justified by the facts of Chinese life we may be able better to decide when we shall have consid- ered those facts in detail.

We have assumed that it is a reasonable theory,and one which we believe is supported by the opinion of competent scholars,that the Chinese of the present day do not differ to any great extent from the Chinese of antiquity.There can hardly be a doubt that the standard of the Chinese and the present standard of Western nations as to what ought to be called sincerity differ widely.He who peruses the Chinese Classics with a discerning eye will be able to read between the lines much indirection,prevarication,and falsehood which are not distinctly expressed. He will also find the Chinese opinion of Occidental openness condensed into the significant expression,"Straightforwardness without the rules of propri- ety becomes rudeness.”To an Occidental there is a signifi- cance in the incident related of Confucius and Ju-pei,as found in the Confucian“Analects,”which is not at all apprehensible to a Confucianist.The following is the passage,from Legge's translation:“Ju-pei wished to see Confucius,but Confucius declined to see him on the ground of being sick.When the bearer of this message went out at the door,Confucius took his harpsichord,and sang to it,in order that Ju-pei might hear.”The object of Confucius was to avoid the disagree- able task of saying that the character of Ju-pei was not such that Confucius wished to meet him,and he took this charac- teristically Chinese way to do it.

The example of Confucius in this matter was toiiowed by Mencius.Being a guest in a certain kingdom he was invited to court,but hoping that the king would honour him by the first call,Mencius alleged sickness,and the next day,to show that this was a mere excuse made a call elsewhere. The officer with whom Mencius spent the night held a long con- versation with the Sage as to the merits of this proceeding, but the discussion between them turns exclusively on the ques- tion of propriety and precedent,and no reference whatever to the morality of lying for the sake of convenience.There is no apparent reason to suppose that this point was ever thought of by any of the persons concerned,any more than it is by a modern Confucian teacher who explains the passage to his pupils.

There is no doubt that the ancient Chinese were far in advance of their contemporaries in many other lands in the instinct of preserving records of the past. Their histories, however prolix,are undoubtedly comprehensive.Many West- ern writers seem to feel the greatest admiration for Chinese histories,and place unrestricted confidence in their statements. The following paragraph is taken from an essay by Dr.J. Singer,lector of the University of Vienna,translated and pub- lished in the China Review,July,1888:“Scientific criticism has long ago recognised and in ever-increasing extent proved the historical reliability of the ancient documents of China. Richthofen,for instance,the latest and most thorough-going explorer of China,in discussing the surprisingly contradictory elements which make up the character of the Chinese as a people,contrasts their strict truthfulness in recording historical events and their earnestness in the search for correct knowl- edge,whenever statistical facts are concerned,with that abso- lute and generally sanctioned license in lying and dissimulation which prevails everywhere in China,in popular intercourse and in diplomatic negotiations."It should be borne distinctly in mind that historical accuracy may be exhibited in two widely different lines:the narration of events in due order and proportion,and the explanation of those events by an analysis of character and motives.It is said by those who have looked into Chinese histories most extensively,that while in the former particular these works are no doubt far in advance of the times in which they were written,in the latter particular they are by no means adapted to carry the impres- sion of that scrupulosity which Dr.Singer supposes.Without expressing any opinion on a subject of which we have no spe- cial knowledge,we will merely call attention to the singular, if not unprecedented,circumstance that a nation which is affirmed to indulge in a license for lying,can at the same time furnish successive generations of historiographers who are reverent of the truth.Do not the same passions which have distorted the history of other lands operate in China? Do not the same causes produce in China the same effects as in the rest of the world?

It is important to bear in mind that not only is the teaching of Confucianism greatly defective in the particular noted,but the practice of the great Master himself is not such as to com- mend historical fidelity. Dr.Legge,who does not lay much stress on“certain charges which have been made from un- important incidents in the Sage's career,"attaches great importance to the manner in which Confucius handled his materials in the"Spring and Autumn Annals,"a work which contains the record of the kingdom of Lu for two hundred and forty-two years,down to within two years of Confucius' death.The following paragraphs are taken from Dr.Legge's lecture on Confucianism,published in his volume on"The Religions of China”:“Mencius regarded the Ch'un Ch'iu ["Spring and Autumn Annals"]as the greatest of the Mas- ter's achievements,and says that its appearance struck terror into rebellious ministers and unfilial sons. The author him- self had a similar opinion of it,and said that it was from it men would know him,and also(some of them)condemn him. Was his own heart misgiving him when he thus spoke of men condemning him for the Ch‘un Ch'iu? The fact is that the annals are astonishingly meagre,and not only so,but evasive and deceptive.‘The Ch‘un Ch'iu,’ says Kung Yang,who commented on it,and supplemented it within a century after its composition,'conceals [the truth]out of regard to the high in rank,to kinship,and to men of worth.'And I have shown in the fifth volume of my'Chinese Classics'that this‘concealing'covers all the ground embraced in our three English words—ignoring,concealing,and misrepresenting. What shall we say to these things?...I often wish that I could cut the knot by denying the genuineness and authenticity of the'Spring and Autumn’as we now have it;but the chain of evidence that binds it to the hand and pencil of Confucius in the close of his life is very strong.And if a foreign student take so violent a method to enable him to look at the charac- ter of the philosoplher without this flaw of historical untruthful- ness,the governors of China and the majority of its scholars will have no sympathy with him,and no compassion for his mental distress.Truthfulness was one of the subjects that Confucius often insisted on with his disciples;but the Ch‘un Ch‘iu has led his countrymen to conceal the truth from them- selves and others wherever they think it would injuriously affect the reputation of the Empire or of its sages.”

We have just seen that those who claim truthfulness for the Chinese in their histories are ready enough to admit that in China truth is confined to histories.It is of course impossible to prove that every Chinese will lie,and we have no wish to do so if it were possible. The strongest testimony on this point can be gathered from the Chinese themselves,whenever their consciences have been sufficiently awakened and their attention directed to the matter.Such persons are frequently heard to say of their race,as the South Sea Island chief said of his:“As soon as we open our mouths a lie is born.”To us,however,it does not seem that the Chinese lie for the sake of lying,as some have supposed,but mainly for the sake of certain advantages not otherwise to be had."Incapable of speaking the truth,"says Mr.Baber,"they are equally in- capable of believing it.”A friend of the writer received a visit from a Chinese lad who had learned English,and who wished to add to his vocabulary an expression meaning"You lie.”He was told the phrase,but cautioned not to use it to a foreigner,as the result would certainly be that he would be knocked down.He expressed unfeigned surprise at this strange announcement,for to his mind the words conveyed a meaning as harmless as the remark,“You are humbugging me.” Mr.Cooke,the China correspondent of the London Times in 1857,speaking of the antipathy of Occidentals to be called liars,observes:“But if you say the same thing to a Chinaman,you arouse in him no sense of outrage,no sen- timent of degradation. He does not deny the fact. His answer is,'I should not dare to lie to your Excellency.'To say to a Chinaman;'You are an habitual liar,and you are meditating a lie at this moment,'is like saying to an English- man,'You are a confirmed punster,and I am satisfied you have some horrible pun in your head at this moment.'”

The ordinary speech of the Chinese is so full of insincerity, which yet does not rise to the dignity of falsehood,that it is very difficult to learn the truth in almost any case.In China it is literally true that a fact is the hardest thing in the world to get.One never feels sure that he has been told the whole of anything. Even where a person is seeking your help,as, for example,in a lawsuit,and wishes to put his case entirely in your hands,nothing is more probable than that you will discover subsequently that several important particulars have been suppressed,apparently from the general instinct of pre- varication and not of malice prepense,since the person him- self must be the only loser by the suppression.The whole of anything does not come out till afterwards,no matter at what point you take it up.A person who is well acquainted with the Chinese will not feel that he understands a matter because he has heard all about it,but will rather take the items which he has heard and combine them with others,and finally call a council of the Chinese whom he trusts most and hold a kind of inquest over these alleged facts to ascertain what their real bearing probably is.

Lack of sincerity,combined with the suspicion which has been already discussed,accounts for the fact that a Chinese will often talk for a very great length of time,saying practi- cally nothing whatever. Much of the incomprehensibility of the Chinese,so far as foreigners are concerned,is due to their insincerity.W e cannot be sure what they are after.We always feel that there is more behind.It is for this reason that when a Chinese comes to you and whispers to you mys- teriously something about another Chinese in whom you are much interested,you are not unlikely to experience a sink- ing sensation in the pit of the stomach. You are uncertain whether the one who is speaking is telling the truth,or whether the character of the one of whom he is speaking has caved in. One never has any assurance that a Chinese ultimatum is ulti- mate.This proposition,so easily stated,contains in itself the germ of multitudinous anxieties for the trader,the traveller, and the diplomatist.

The real reason for anything is hardly ever to be expected, and even when it has been given,one cannot be sure of this fact.Every Chinese,the uneducated not less than others,is by nature a kind of cuttle-fish capable of distilling any amount of turbid ink,into which he can retreat with the utmost safety so far as pursuit is concerned.If you are interviewed on a journey and invited to contribute to the travelling-expenses of some impecunious individual who hopes to exploit a new field, your attendant does not say,as you would do,"Your ex- penses are none of my affair,begone with you!”but“with a smile that is child-like and bland,"he explains that your allowance of money is barely sufficient for your own use,and so you will be deprived of the pleasure of contributing to your fellow-traveller.We have seldom met a Chinese gate-keeper who would say to a Chinese crowd,as a foreigner tells him to do,"Y ou cannot come in here,"but he will observe instead, that they must not come in,because the big dog will bite them if they do.

There are few Chinese who have any well-developed con- science on the subject of keeping an engagement.This char- acteristic is connected with their talent for misunderstanding, and with their disregard of time.But whatever the real reason for the failure,it is interesting to see what a variety of alleged reasons exist for it.The Chinese in general resemble the man who,being accused of having broken his promise,replied that it was of no consequence,as he could make another just as good.If it is a fault for which he is reproved,promises of amendment flow in limpid streams from his lips.His acknowl- edgments of wrong are complete—in fact,too complete,and leave nothing to be desired but sincerity.

A Chinese teacher who was employed in inditing and com- menting upon Chinese aphorisms,after writing down a fine sentiment of the ancients,made an annotation to the effect that one should never refuse a request in an abrupt manner, but should,on the contrary,grant it in form,although with no intention to do so in substance.“Put him off till to-mor- row,and then until another to-morrow.Thus,"he remarked in his note,“you comfort his heart!”So far as we know the principle here avowed is the one which is generally acted upon by the Chinese who have debts for which payment is sought. No one expects to collect his debt at the time that he applies for it,and he is not disappointed;but he is told most positively tlhat he will get it the next time,and the next, and the next.

One of the ways in which the native insincerity of the Chinese is most characteristically manifested is their demean- our towards children,who are taught to be insincere without consciousness of the fact either on their own part or on the part of those who teach them.Before he is old enough to talk,and when he can attach only the vaguest significance to the words which he hears,a child is told that unless he does as he is bid some terrific object,said to be concealed in the sleeve of a grown person,will catch him.It is not uncom- mon for foreigners to be put in the place of the unknown mon- ster,and this fact alone would be sufficient to account for all the bad words which we frequently hear applied to ourselves. Why should not children who may have been affrighted with our vague terrors when they were young,hoot us in the streets as soon as they have grown large enough to perceive that we are not dangerous but only ridiculous?

The carter who is annoyed by the urchins in the street yell- ing after his foreign passenger,shouts to them that he will cap- ture several of them,tie them on behind his cart and carry them off.The boatman under like provocation contents him- self with the observation that he will pour scalding water upon them.The expressions,“I'll beat you,"“I'll kill you,” are understood by a Chinese child of some experience to con- stitute an ellipsis for“Stop that!”

There is in Chinese a whole vocabulary of words which are indispensable to one who wishes to pose as a“polite”person, words in which whatever belongs to the speaker is treated with scorn and contempt,and whatever relates to the person addressed is honourable.The“polite”Chinese will refer to his wife,if driven to the extremity of referring to her at all,as his“dull thorn,”or in some similar elegant figure of speech, while the rustic,who grasps at the substance of“politeness,” although ignorant of its formal expression,perhaps alludes to the companion of his joys and sorrows as his“stinking woman.”This trait of Chinese etiquette is not inaptly pre- sented in one of their own tales,in which a visitor is repre- sented as calling clad in his best robes,and seated in the reception-room awaiting the arrival of his host.A rat which had been disporting itself upon the beams above,insinuating its nose into a jar of oil which was put there for safe-keeping, frightened at the sudden intrusion of the caller,ran away,and in so doing upset the oil-jar,which fell directly on the caller, striking him a severe blow,and ruining his elegant garments with the saturation of the oil. Just as the face of the guest was purple with rage at this disaster,the host entered,when the proper salutations were performed,after which the guest proceeded to explain the situation. “As I entered your honourable apartment and seated myself under your honour- able beam,I inadvertently terrified your honourable rat,which fled and upset your honourable oil-jar upon my mean and in- significant clothing,which is the reason of my contemptible appearance in your honourable presence."

That very few foreigners can ever bring themselves to give Chinese invitations in a Chinese way,goes without saying.It requires long practice to bow cordially to a Chinese crowd as one goes to a meal,and remark blandly,"Please all sit down and eat,"or to sweep a cup of tea in a semicircle just as it is raised to the lips,and,addressing one's self to the multitude, observe with gravity,“Please all drink.”Not less real is the moral difficulty of exclaiming at suitable situations,“Ko-t'ou, k‘o-tou," signifying,“I can,may,must,might,could,would, or should”(as the case may be)“give you a prostration”;or of occasionally interjecting the observation,“I ought to be beaten,I ought to be killed,"meaning that I have offended against some detail of the rules of etiquette;or of stopping in the midst of a horseback ride,upon meeting a casual acquaint- ance,and proposing to him,"I will get off and you shall mount,"quite irrespective of the direction in which you may be travelling,or the general irrationality of the procedure. Yet the most ignorant and uncultivated Chinese will frequently give these invitations with an air,which,as already remarked, extorts admiration from the most unsympathetic Occidental, who pays the unconscious tribute of him who cannot to him who can.Such little ceremonies,as we have had repeated occasion to observe,are enforced contributions on the part of individuals to society at arge,that friction may be diminished, and he who refuses to contribute will be punished in a man- ner not the less real because it is oblique.Thus a carter who neglects to take his cue down from his head and descend from his cart when he has occasion to inquire the way,will not improbably be given a wrong direction,and reviled besides.

To be able to determine what is the proper thing to be done when Orientals offer presents,is in itself a science,and perhaps as much so in China as in other countries.Some things must not be accepted at all,while others must not be altogether refused,and there is generally a broad debatable land,in regard to which a foreigner can be sure of nothing except that,left to his own judgment,he will almost infallibly do the wrong thing.In general,offers of presents are to be suspected,especially those which are in any particular extraor- dinary.Of this class are those which are tendered on the oc- casion of the birth of a son,in reference to which the classical dictum,"I fear the Greeks,even bearing gifts,"is universally and perennially appropriate.There is always something be- hind such an offer,and,as the homely Chinese proverb says of a rat dragging a shovel,the"larger end is the one that is behind,"or,in other words,what is (virtually)required in return is much greater than what is given.

Of the hollowness of these offers many foreigners in China have had experience. We have ourselves had occasion to be but too familiar with the details of a case in which a theatrical exhibition was offered to a few foreigners by a Chinese village, as a mark of respect,of course with the implied understanding that it should be duly acknowledged by suitable feasts.When this honour was definitely declined,it was proposed to devote the funds,or rather a small part of them,to the construction of a building for public use,which,in the case of the first village,was actually done. No sooner was this agreed upon than eleven other villages,also deeply smitten with gratitude for famine relief and medical help,proceeded to send deputa- tions to make on their part formal offers of theatrical exhibi- tions,which they were perfectly aware would be and must be declined.The representatives of each village received the intelligence of the refusal of these honours with the same sad surprise,each of them offered to divert the funds in question to the public building already referred to,and each one of them allowed the matter to drop at that point,and no further reference whatever was ever made to it by any one of them!

It is not foreigners only who are beset in this way.Rich Chinese who have had the misfortune to be made happy,are sometimes visited by their neighbours with congratulatory gifts of a trifing character,such as toys for a new-born heir,pres- ents the total value of which is practically nothing,but which must be acknowledged by a feast—the invariable and always appropriate Chinese response.It is on occasions like this that the most inexpert in Chinese affairs learns to appreciate the accuracy of the Chinese aphorism,which observes,"When one is eating one's own,he eats till the tears come;but when he is eating the food of others,he eats till the perspiration flows.”It frequently happens under such conditions that the host is obliged to assume the most cordial appearance of wel- come,when he is inwardly fuming with rage which cannot possibly be expressed without the loss of his"face,"which would be even more deadly than-the loss of the food.

This suggests that large class of expressions which come under the general designation of“face-talk.”That much of the external decorum with which foreigners are treated by Chinese in their employ,especially in large cities,is a mere external veneer,is easily seen by contrasting the behaviour of the same persons in public and in private. It is said that a Chinese teacher who is a model of the proprieties at his for- eign master's house,is not unlikely to“cut him dead”if he meets the same master on the streets of Peking,for the reason that to notice him at that time would lead to a public recog- nition of the fact that the Chinese pundit is in some way in- debted to the foreign barbarian for replenishing the rice-bowl of the Chinese—a circumstance which,however notorious, must not be formally admitted,especially in public.It is very common for a number of Chinese,on entering a room where there is a foreigner,to salute all the Chinese in the room by turn,and totally ignore the foreigner.A Chinese teacher is not unlikely to flatter his foreign pupil with the information that his ear is remarkably correct and his pronunciation almost perfect,and that he will soon surpass all his contemporaries in the acquisition of the language,while at the very same time the peculiar errors of the pupil are not improbably matter of sport between the teacher and his companions.In general,it may be taken for granted that the last person to set one right in matters of Chinese speech is the teacher who is employed for that purpose.

One of the ways in which the formal and hollow politeness of the Chinese manifests itself,is in voluntary offers to do what it is very desirable should be done,but which others cannot or will not undertake. If the offer comes to nothing we should not be disappointed,for it is not improbable that it was made with the definite knowledge that it could not be carried out, but the“face”of the friend who made the offer is assured. In like manner,if there is a dispute as to the amount of money to be paid at an inn,your carter will probably come forward as arbitrator,and decide that he will make up the difference himself,which he does by taking the amount required from your cash-bag.Or if he were to pay the money from his own funds,he would bring in his bill for the same,and if he was reminded that he offered of his own accord to make it up,he would reply,“Do you expect the man who attends the funeral to be buried in the coffin too?”

There is a great deal of real modesty in China notwith- standing appearances to the contrary,but it cannot for a mo- ment be doubted that there is likewise a great deal of mock modesty,both on the part of men and of women.It is very common to hear it said of some disagreeable matter,that it is wholly unmentionable,that the words are totally unutterable, etc.,when all parties are perfectly aware that this is a mere form denoting reluctance to express an opinion.The very persons who use this high-toned language would be ready enough to employ the foulest expressions of vituperation whenever they were excited by anger.

False modesty is matched by a false sympathy,which con- sists of empty words;but for this the Chinese are not to be blamed,as they have no adequate material out which sym- pathy for others can be developed in any considerable quanti- ties and for any length of time. But empty sympathy is not so repugnant to good taste as that mockery of sympathy and of all true feeling which contemplates death with boisterous merriment.Mr.Baber mentions a Szechuan coolie who burst into a delighted laugh at the spectacle of two dogs devour- ing a corpse on the tow-path.Mr.Meadows tells us that his Chinese teacher laughed till he held his sides at the amusing death of his most constant companion. It is no explanation of these strange exhibitions,often observed in the case of parents at the death of children of whom they were fond,that long grief has dried up its external expression,for there is a wide distinction between a silent grief and that rude mockery of natural feeling which offends the instincts of.mankind.

It is,as we have had occasion to remark,several hundred years since foreigners began to have commercial relations with the Chinese. There have been multiplied testimonies to the business honesty of those with whom these relations have been held. Without generalising to a degree which might be precarious,it is safe to say that there must be a good basis for testimonies of this sort.As a specimen of what these testi- monies are,we may quote the words of Mr.Cameron,Man- ager of the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank,on occasion of his farewell to Shanghai:“I have referred to the high commer- cial standing of the foreign community. The Chinese are in no way behind us ourselves in that respect;in fact,I know of no people in the world I would sooner trust than the Chinese merchant and banker.Of course there are exceptions to every rule,but to show that I have good reasons for making such a strong statement,I may mention that for the last twenty-five years the bank has been doing a very large business with Chinese in Shanghai,amounting,I should say,to hundreds of millions of taels,and we have never yet met with a defaulting Chinaman.”Perhaps the best commentary on the statement just quoted is the fact that within three years after it was made,a Chinese compradore of the same bank in Hongkong so crippled it by losses for which it did not appear that there was any security that a million dollars were subtracted from the annual profits.

Whether there is an essentar diference between Chinese business as conducted by wholesale and that by retail,we have no means of knowing.But without abating in the least from the value of the testimonies to which reference has been made,it is a fair question whether a large part of results noted are not due to the admirable system of mutual responsibility already described—a system which Western nations would do well to imitate.It is only natural that foreigners doing busi- ness with the Chinese should avail themselves to the fullest extent of such commercial safeguards as exist,and for such results as are thus attained the Chinese are unquestionably entitled to the fullest credit.Yet after all such acknowledg- ments are made,it remains true,as testified by a vast array of witnesses,and by wide and long observation,that the com- merce of the Chinese is a gigantic example of the national insincerity.

An interesting essay has been written by one who knerv of what he was affirming,on the process by which in ordinary trade two Chinese each succeed in cheating the other.The relation of two such individuals is generally the relation be- tween Jacob and Laban,or,as the Chinese phrase runs,it is the iron brush meeting the brass wash-dish.It is a popular proverb that to put a lad into trade is to ruin him.False weights,false measures,false currency,and false goods—these are phenomena from which it is difficult to escape in China. Even in the great establishments which put up conspicuous signs,notifying the public that they will here find“goods genuine,prices real,"“positively no two prices,"the state of things does not correspond to the surface seeming.

We by no means intend to affirm such a proposition as that there is no honesty to be found in China,but only that,so far as our experience and observation go,it is literally impossible to be sure of finding it anywhere. How can it be otherwise with a people who have so little regard for truth?A well- dressed scholar who meets a foreigner is not ashamed to affirm in reply to a question,that he cannot read,and then when a little book has been handed him to look at,he does not hesi- tate to slink away in the crowd without paying the three cash which is the cost. He has no sense of shame at such a pro- ceeding,but rather a thrill of joy that he has circumvented the silly foreigner,who has so ittle astuteness as to trust a total stranger.It is very common for a man who is buying from a foreigner to give a cash less than the proper amount,alleging that he has not another cash with him.When he is informed that there is one in his ear at the moment,he takes it out with reluctance,feeling that he has been defrauded.In like man- ner a man who has spent"an old half-day"in trying to get something free of cost,on the ground that he is totally with- out money,will at last draw forth a string of a thousand cash, hand it to you with an air of melancholy,and request you to take out the proper amount.But if he is believed,and gets something for nothing,he departs with a keen joy in his heart, like that of one who has slain a serpent.

The solidarity of Chinese society finds one of its manifesta- tions in the constant habit of borrowing what belongs to a relative,with or without a notification of the intention so to do.Many of the articles thus"borrowed"are at once put in pawn,and if they are wanted again the owners must redeem them.A Chinese boy in a mission school was detected in stealing money from the single lady who had charge of the scholars'rooms. Upon being confronted with irrefragable proof of his guilt,he explained,with sobs,that when at home he had always been in the habit of stealing from his mother, and that his foreign teacher was so much like an own mother to him that he was betrayed into stealing from her too!

While it is undoubtedly true that many of the evils which are so conspicuous in Chinese social life are to be found also in Western lands,it is of the utmost importance clearly to per- ceive the points of essential contrast. One of these we take to be that already mentioned,in that insincerity in China, while not always to be met with,is always to be looked for. Instances of this have been already cited in speaking of other topics,and others might be referred to at almost any length.

An interesting volume remains to be written by some one who has the requisite knowledge,on the theory and practice of Chinese squeezes—a practice which extends from the Em- peror on his throne to the lowest beggar in the Empire.With that practical sagacity for which they are so deservedly noted, the Chinese have reduced this business to a perfect system, which can no more be escaped than one can escape the press- ure of the atmosphere.Vicious and demoralising as the sys- tem is,it is not easy to see how it can be done away with, except by a complete reorganisation of the Empire.

The result of this state of things,and of the characteristics of the Chinese which have led to it,is that it is very difficult for a foreigner to have to do with the Chinese in a practical way,and on any extended scale,and yet contrive to preserve his reputation—should he be so fortunate as to have one—as a“superior man.”It is a proverb constantly quoted,and self-verifying,that carters,boatmen,inn-keepers,coolies,and middlemen,irrespective of any specific offence,all deserve to be killed on general principles.The relation of this class of persons and others like them to foreigners is peculiar,for it is known that foreigners will consent to a great deal of imposi- tion rather than have a social typhoon,for which they gener- ally lack both the taste and the talent;yet it is by the social typhoon that,in case of any supposed breach of equity on the part of Chinese towards Chinese,the social atmosphere is brought at last to a state of equilibrium.

He must be a rare man who has no blind side upon which those Chinese who choose to do so cannot get. Not to be too suspicious and not to be too confiding is a rare illustra- tion of the golden mean.If one exhibits that just disappro- bation towards insincerity which it seems to demand,the Chinese,who are shrewd judges of human nature,set it down to our discredit as a mark of"temper";while if we maintain the placid demeanour of a Buddha absorbed in his Nirvana, a demeanour which is not easy for all temperaments at all times,we are at once marked as fit subjects for further and indefinite exactions.That was a typical Chinese who,being in foreign employ,saw one day a peddler on the street,vend- ing little clay images of foreigners,cleverly executed and in appropriate costume. Stopping for a moment to examine them,he said to the dealer in images,"Ah,you play with these toys;I play with the real things.”

It is unnecessary to do more than to allude in passing to the fact that the Chinese government,so far as it is knowable, appears to be a gigantic example of the trait which we are discussing.Instances are to be found in the entire history of foreign relations with China,and one might almost say in all that is known of the relations of Chinese officials to the people. A single but compendious illustration is to be found in those virtuous proclamations which are issued with such unfailing regularity,in such superlative abundance,with such felicity of diction,on allvarieties of subjects and from all grades of officials.One thing only is lacking,namely,reality,for these fine commands are not intended to be enforced.This is quite understood by all concerned,and on this point there are no illusions."The life and state papers of a Chinese statesman, like the Confessions of Rousseau,abound in the finest senti- ments and the foulest deeds. He cuts off ten thousand heads,and cites a passage from Mencius about the sanctity of human life.He pockets the money given him to repair an embankment and thus inundates a province,and he deplores the land lost to the cultivator of the soil.He makes a treaty which he secretly declares to be only a deception for the mo- ment,and he declaims against the crime of perjury.”Doubt- less there may be pure-minded and upright officials in China, but it is very hard to find them,and from the nature of their environment they are utterly helpless to accomplish the good which they may have at heart.When we compare the actual condition of those who have had the best opportunity to be- come acquainted with the Chinese Classics,with the teachings of these Classics,we gain a vivid conception of how practically inert they have been to bring society to their high standard.

"How many Chinese have you ever known whom you would implicitly trust?”This question must be understood to relate only to those who have come under no influences outside of regular Chinese education.Different replies will be given by different persons according to their experience, and according to their standard of judging of Chinese charac- ter. Most foreigners would probably reply,"A very few," "Six or eight,""A dozen,"as the case may be.Occasionally the answer will be,“A great many,more than I can remem- ber.”But we must believe that intelligent and discriminating observers who can truthfully give the latter reply are exceed- ingly few in number.

It is always prudent to observe what things a people take for granted,and to act accordingly. As we have seen in the discussion of mutual suspicion as a factor in Chinese social life,the Chinese take it for granted that they are not to trust others,for reasons which they well understand.It is pre- cisely this state of things which makes the future of China so full of uncertainty. The governing class as a whole is not the best but the worst in the Empire.An intelligent Taotai remarked to a foreigner that“the officials under the Emperor are all bad men and ought to be killed,but it would be of no use to kill us,as the next incumbents would be just as bad as we.”The serpent,as the Chinese adage runs,knows his own hole,and it is a significant fact that the official class in China is profoundly distrusted by the class next below it,the mer- cantile.They know that the so-called“reformation”is but a superficial shell,which will soon scale off.A Chinese mason spending a vast amount of time smoothing the outside of chimneys and roofs which he has built badly with untempered mortar,and which he knows will smoke and leak at the first opportunity,is a type of many things in China.

There is wealth enough in China to develop the resources of the Empire,if there were but the confidence,without which timid capital will not emerge from its hiding-place.There is learning enough in China for all its needs.There is no lack of talent of every description.But without mutual confidence, based upon real sincerity of purpose,all these are insufficient for the regeneration of the Empire.

A few years ago the writer was consulted by an intelligent Chinese in regard to the possibility of doing something for the relief of a district that has great trouble with its wells, which are made in the usual Chinese way,and bricked up by a wall begun from the top and lowered as the well is deep- ened. But in this particular locality the soil is of such a char- acter that after a time the whole ground sinks,taking the well and its brick lining with it,leaving only a hole,which event- ually caves in and becomes dry.Like the attempt to remedy the evils of this unfortunate district in the province of Chihli is any prescription to cure the ills from which China is suffer- ing,and has long suffered,which does not go deep enough to reach the roots of character.All superficial treatment will prove at last to be but burying cart-loads of excellent material in a Slough of Despond.